Reviews & Analysis

Cell death can result from the activation of dedicated programmed cell death machineries or disruption of pro-survival mechanisms. This Review describes the different major mechanisms of cell death and discusses recent insights into their relevance to disease.

Scientists are captivated by the prospect of creating a fully synthetic cell, offering the potential to revolutionize biology, medicine and biotechnology. In this Viewpoint, a panel of experts discusses the definitions of a synthetic cell and highlights current achievements, challenges and future opportunities of building such systems.

Plant cells assemble a strong yet extensible primary cell wall consisting largely of polysaccharides. Emerging models of wall growth integrate physical properties such as mechanical strength and tension with cellular processes that govern wall loosening and expansion.

Adherens junctions (AJs) are canonical mediators of cell–cell adhesion that support embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. This Review discusses how the properties and behaviours of embryonic tissues emerge from the collective molecular interactions that occur at AJs.

White adipose tissue serves a plethora of physiological functions, which are compromised in obesity. The mechanisms through which obese white adipose tissue contributes to pathologies including insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, chronic inflammation, cancer and decreased fertility are emerging. In the future, these insights can be translated into novel drugs for obesity and obesity-associated diseases.

ATP-dependent chromatin remodellers regulate chromatin transactions — transcription, replication and DNA repair — by re-arranging nucleosomes. Recent studies have elucidated the organization of remodeller complexes, their ATPase activity, their regulation and their pathological dysregulation.

Translation is controlled mainly during its initiation. Recent studies in yeast and mammals provide new insights into the mechanism of translation initiation regulation in health and in various diseases, and open avenues for the development of innovative therapies targeting the translation machinery.

Lysosomes orchestrate key cellular functions such as nutrient sensing, degradation of macromolecules and stress adaptation. This Review discusses the integration of signalling pathways at the lysosome and highlights the interaction of lysosomes with other organelles and mechanisms that ensure lysosome homeostasis.

Intrinsically disordered regions of proteins lack a defined 3D structure and exist in a collection of interconverting conformations. Recent work is shedding light on how — through their conformational malleability and adaptability — intrinsically disordered regions extend the repertoire of macromolecular interactions in the cell and contribute to key cellular functions.

The regenerative abilities of mammalian hair follicles are facilitated by the proliferation of hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs), which reside in specialized niches within the skin. Recent studies shed light on how local signals and systemic inputs from the body and the environment regulate HFSC function.

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are relics of ancient retroviral infections, which provide coding and non-coding sequences to the human genome. Emerging evidence reveals how HERVs contribute to immune responses and embryogenesis and how infections and mutations can dysregulate them and contribute to neurodegeneration, inflammation and oncogenesis.

Eukaryotic membrane fusion is hindered by energy barriers and often requires soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) to facilitate formation of a fusion pore. Recent studies describe SNARE activity along the fusion pathway and shed light on the regulation of SNARE complex assembly.

Embedded within the complexity of biological systems lies a formidable task: deciphering the intricate architecture of macromolecules. In this Viewpoint, a panel of experts discuss the key challenges and opportunities of macromolecular structure determination, highlighting the crucial synergy between empirical experimentation and artificial intelligence-based techniques in unravelling these complexities.

Targeted editing of mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes has therapeutic, agricultural and environmental potential, but it is challenging owing to inability of transfecting (guide) RNA into the organelles. Recent designs of protein-only, programmable base editors open promising avenues for organellar DNA editing in cell lines, animals and plants.

A unique feature of mitochondrial DNA function is the coupling of initiation of transcription with that of replication. Tan et al. discuss the choice between initiation of either process, and how mitochondrial DNA packaging into nucleoids controls its accessibility and function in human cells.

Iron homeostasis in animals is tightly controlled, and numerous cellular pathways regulate iron uptake, storage, metabolism and secretion. Recent findings provide new insights into the sensory systems that fine-tune iron homeostasis and explain how cellular and systemic iron fluxes intersect.

The mitochondrial proteome is highly complex, comprising ~1,000–1,500 proteins in mammals. Recent technological advances are now helping to refine the mitochondrial proteome and are assisting in characterizing mitochondrial protein functions, paving the way for better diagnosis and treatment of mitochondrial diseases.

Antioxidants modulate the levels of reactive oxygen species to allow their physiological roles whilst minimizing the oxidative damage and pathology. The roles and mechanisms of antioxidants are complex and context-dependent, necessitating better understanding of their actions in vivo and warranting caution with their use as therapeutic agents.

Forkhead box (FOXO) transcription factors are important mediators of cell stress responses, generally considered to preserve homeostasis and counteract ageing. However, FOXO-mediated mechanisms can also support the survival of cancer and other dysfunctional cells, thereby complicating the link between FOXOs and lifespan extension.

In this Review, the authors outline the thermodynamic and kinetic principles of protein misfolding and amyloid formation. Mechanisms of toxicity are discussed, focusing on the effect of amyloid interactions with cellular components, and the association of aggregation with healthy ageing and pathology.