Geomorphic and ecological factors shape the effects of sea level rise on the coastal carbon sink. This Review discusses how reductions in greenhouse gas emissions compensate for losses in carbon sequestration as ecosystem boundaries change rapidly in the coastal zone.

Gyres, jets and waves are thought to have an important role in Earth’s core dynamics. This Review explores these core processes, based on satellite observations and numerical simulations, and discusses the implications for deep-Earth coupling and forecasting geomagnetic field changes.

Although model projections indicate increased El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability in the future, contemporary impacts of anthropogenic forcing on ENSO variability have been difficult to ascertain. This Perspective discusses these contemporary effects, outlining that an increase in post-1960 ENSO variability is likely related to greenhouse gas forcing.

A digital twin of Earth would fully integrate Big Data observations within an Earth–human system model, to assess the interactions between these subsystems. This Review explores the current progress in Big Data manipulation in Earth sciences providing pathways toward digital twins of Earth.