Warmer temperatures enhance formation of glacial lakes that can suddenly and catastrophically release as a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF), threatening downstream lives and infrastructure. This Review outlines observed and projected changes in glacial lakes and GLOFs, reporting that both will increase with ongoing deglaciation.

Wildfires are important ecosystem regulators and can benefit many fire-prone ecosystems, but extreme fires can leave soils vulnerable to nutrient loss and contaminant transformations. This Review discusses fire-induced impacts on soil chemistry and post-fire soil, air and water recovery.

Human modifications to the environment can amplify the secondary impacts of earthquakes, such as landslides, liquefaction and tsunamis. This Perspective explores the relationships between environmental modification and earthquake-triggered hazards to identify potential solutions for hazard mitigation.

Avalanche conditions and related risks are influenced by ongoing changes in temperature and precipitation. This Review synthesizes existing data, approaches and results to highlight dominant patterns of change and how they are linked to climate change and other socio-environmental factors.