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The molecular mechanisms that control Treg and TH17 development and the precise role of TGF-β in this process are complex and imperfectly understood. New findings indicate that the helix-loop-helix proteins E2A and Id3 are also critically involved in some of these processes.
TH2 cells control immune responses to helminth infection and contribute to the development of allergic asthma. A single intronic enhancer element in Il4 can regulate TH2 differentiation and susceptibility to allergic asthma via interaction with the transcription factor GATA-3.
The fields of immunology, microbiology, nutrition and metabolism are rapidly converging. Here we expand on a diet-microbiota model as the basis for the greater incidence of asthma and autoimmunity in developed countries.
Transcription factors specific for helper T cell lineages, such as T-bet, counter-regulate helper T cell development, but the details of this remain unclear. Glimcher and colleagues unravel the molecular basis of the regulation of TH17 cells by T-bet.
Immunoglobulin genes are further diversified by the cytidine deaminase AID. Gearhart and colleagues show immunoglobulin genes accumulate AID-dependent uracil residues within the first 24 hours of B cell stimulation.
Peptides presented to cytotoxic T lymphocytes are typically generated by proteasome action. Kessler and colleagues show that the cytosolic endopeptidases nardilysin and thimet oligopeptidase generate the C termini of tumor-relevant epitopes.
Autophagy is a physiological process that involves the engulfment and degradation of organelles. Choi and colleagues demonstrate that autophagy is important for the removal of damaged mitochondria and thus the control of inflammation.
TGF-β and Foxp3 are required for the development of regulatory T cells. Chen and colleagues show that the helix-loop-helix proteins E2A and Id3 enhance Foxp3 expression and relieve it from inhibition by other transcription factors.
HLA-DM activity ensures that only high-affinity peptides are displayed on MHC class II molecules. Wucherpfennig and colleagues show that interaction of HLA-DR with the N terminus of bound peptides determines susceptibility to HLA-DM.
The molecular basis of TH2 lineage commitment is poorly understood. Kubo and colleagues identify the Il4 enhancer HS2 as a target of the transcription factor GATA-3 and show it to be critical for IL-4 production and TH2 functional commitment.
Binding of the transcription factor NF-κB subunit RelA activates proinflammatory gene expression. Gozani and colleagues show that basal expression of RelA target genes is suppressed by methylation of RelA by SETD6, which triggers repressive histone methylation by GLP.
A family of innate lymphoid cells exist that is capable of rapid cytokine production. Spits and Di Santo review the developmental relationships and physiologic function of this expanding family.
Immunoglobulin genes are prominent targets of the deaminase AID. Casellas and Nussenzweig and co-workers show that whereas stalled polymerases recruit AID across the B cell genome, efficient hypermutation is restricted to immunoglobulin loci by the RPA cofactor of AID.
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases participate in many biological and pathological processes. Takaoka and co-workers show that the short isoform of PARP-13 (ZAPS) is selectively induced by 5'-triphosphate–modified RNA and regulates signaling mediated by the RNA helicase RIG-I.
Jim Gowans opened a new era of immunology by combining physiological in vivo studies with prospective enrichment of small lymphocytes, validating the clonal selection theory, discovering lymphocyte homing and recirculation, and training others to follow.
Regulatory T cells come in many different forms depending on their mode of action or developmental origin. Data now show that interleukin 35, an immunomodulatory cytokine secreted by regulatory T cells, and interleukin 10 induce so-called 'iTR35 cells', which may have an important role in the phenomenon of infectious tolerance.
Human CD4+ T cells that produce interleukin 22 are an essential component of skin defense and repair. New evidence shows that these T cells recognize CD1a-lipid complexes on Langerhans cells.
Natural killer cells have emerged as key components of innate immunity with critical antimicrobial functions. New work showing that they can also be accessed by vaccination to deliver antigen-specific memory responses and protect against subsequent viral infections challenges the traditional distinctions made between innate and adaptive immunity.