Abstract
Peroxidated lipids accumulate in the presence of reactive oxygen species and are linked to neurodegenerative diseases. Here we find that neuronal ablation of ARF1, a small GTPase important for lipid homeostasis, promoted accumulation of peroxidated lipids, lipid droplets and ATP in the mouse brain and led to neuroinflammation, demyelination and neurodegeneration, mainly in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Ablation of ARF1 in cultured primary neurons led to an increase in peroxidated lipids in co-cultured microglia, activation of the microglial NLRP3 inflammasome and release of inflammatory cytokines in an Apolipoprotein E-dependent manner. Deleting the Nlrp3 gene rescued the neurodegenerative phenotypes in the neuronal Arf1-ablated mice. We also observed a reduction in ARF1 in human brain tissue from patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis. Together, our results uncover a previously unrecognized role of peroxidated lipids released from damaged neurons in activation of a neurotoxic microglial NLRP3 pathway that may play a role in human neurodegeneration.
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Data availability
RNA-seq data have been deposited in the Gene Expression Omnibus under accession no. GSE183483. All other data supporting the findings of this study are available within the source data provided with this paper and its Supplementary Information and are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Code availability
There is no new code was created for analysis of the RNA-seq data.
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Pathology/Histotechnology Laboratory at the Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research for help with tissue sectioning and K. Nagashima at the Electron Microscopy Laboratory of the NCI, NIH for help with EM experiments. We thank A. Abdelmaksoud, U. Sehgal, M. Cam, P. Jailwala, Y. Zhao, T.W. Shen and S. Kuhn at NCI, NIH for help with analyzing RNA-seq data; D. Reich at the NINDS for help with getting human samples; J.M. Wang at NCI for help supervising the protocol for mice research; S. Lopez at NCI for help editing the manuscript. We thank the NIH NeuroBioBank and the Rocky Mountain Multiple Sclerosis Center Tissue Bank for providing healthy, ALS and MS human samples. This research was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, NCI and Center for Cancer Research (S.X.H.); NINDS intramural program (W.L.); the National Natural Science Foundation of China (92057205 to S.X.H.). NCI and NINDS at NIH supported the study design, purchase of reagents, data collection and analysis, revision and publishing process and preparation of the manuscript. The National Natural Science Foundation of China supported the publishing process.
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G.W. and S.X.H. conceived and designed the experiments. G.W. and W.Y. performed the majority of experiments. H.S. and Q.T. assisted with experiments. G.W. and S.X.H. analyzed data. S.X.H., G.W. and W.L. wrote the manuscript.
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Peer review information Nature Aging thanks Geert Van Loo, Trent Woodruff and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
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Extended data
Extended Data Fig. 1 ARF1-deficient mice have movement defects.
Control (UBC-CreER/Arf1f/+, Arf1+/-) and ubiquitous ARF1-KO (UBC-CreER/Arf1f/f, Arf1-/-) mice were assayed. a, Schematic diagram of the experimental strategy used to generate ARF1-KO adult mice. b,c, Western blot analysis of ARF1 expression in different brain regions (b; Ctx-cerebral cortex, Str-striatum, BS-brain stem, MD-midbrain, OF-olfactory bulb) or different organs (c) from control (Arf1+/-) and the ubiquitous ARF1-KO (Arf1-/-) mice. d,e, Survival curve, body weight, forced swimming test and balance beam test of 2-month-old (d), 4-month-old (e) and 10-month-old (f) adult mice. n = 5 mice per group, one representative experiment from three independent experiments. g, Gait of control (Arf+/-) and ubiquitous ARF1-KO (Arf1-/-) mice was examined by footprinting assay at 2-month, 4-month, and 10-month of age. h, Quantification of stride lengths of front and hind footprints of mice in the indicated ages and control or ubiquitous ARF1-KO genotypes. n = 5 per group. Data are from one of three independent experiments and are represented as means ± SEM. P value was calculated using two-tailed t-test.
Extended Data Fig. 2 Muscle atrophy, demyelination and neuromuscular denervation of the ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice.
Control mice (UBC-CreER/Arf1f/f, Arf1+/-), the ubiquitous Arf1-KO (UBC-CreER/Arf1f/f, Arf1-/-). a, Masson’s trichrome stained sections of triangularis sterni (TS) muscles from 2-month-old the ubiquitous ARF1-KO comparison with control mice. Scale bar: 100 μm. b, Neurological score of 2-, 4- and 10-month-old control and the ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice. 2-m-old and 10-month-old: n = 5 mice per group, 3 male and 2 female mice. 4-month-old: n = 6 per group, 3 male and 3 female mice. c,d, Luxol Fast Blue Staining of cerebellum (c) and spinal cord (d) of control and the ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 100 μm. e, Immunofluorescence staining for MBP, CD3, CNP and Hoechst in spinal cords from control and the ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 10 μm. f, Immunofluorescence staining for PDGFRA, CC1 and Hoechst in cerebellum from control and the ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 100 μm (left), 20 μm (right). g, Immunoblot analysis of ARF1, myelin proteins and Neuron N (NeuN) in spinal cords of 2-, 4- and 10-month-old control and ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice. h, Syntaxin1 and α-bungarotoxin immunostaining of TS muscles from 2-month-old control and the ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 50 μm. Data are represented as mean with each replicate. Data represents one of three independent experiments. P value was calculated using two-tailed t-test.
Extended Data Fig. 3 Ablation of ARF1 in astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, myeloid cells and microglia did not show neurodegenerative phenotypes.
a-g, Body weight, balance beam test and neurological score were assayed in control and cell-type specifically ARF1-deleted mice. a-GFAP-CreER (astrocytes); Arf1f/+: n = 5 mice, 3 male and 2 female mice. Arf1f/f: n = 4 mice, 2 male and 2 female mice. b-Pdgfra-CreER (oligodendrocyte precursor); n = 6 mice, 3 male and 3 female mice. c-Plp1-CreER (oligodendrocytes and schwann cell); n = 6 mice, 3 male and 3 female mice. d-Sox10-CreER (oligodendrocyte lineage cell); n = 5 mice, 2 male and 3 female mice. e-LysM-CreER (myeloid cells); n = 4 mice, 2 male and 2 female mice in control group, and 2 male and 1 female mice in KO group. f-Cx3cr1-CreER (microglia); n = 4 mice, 2 male and 2 female mice in each group. g-Tmem119-CreER (microglia). n = 5 mice, 2 male and 3 female mice. One of three independent experiments was shown. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. h, Western blot for ARF1 expression was performed in the Cre-expressing cell types isolated from Arf1+/- and Arf1-/- mice. Data represents one of three independent experiments. Data are represented as mean with each replicate. P value was calculated using two-tailed t-test.
Extended Data Fig. 4 Neuronal specific ablation of ARF1 promotes formation of lipid droplets induces the neurodegenerative phenotypes in mice.
a-b, Masson’s trichrome (a), Syntaxin1 and α-bungarotoxin (b) immunostaining sections of triangularis sterni (TS) muscles from control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 50 μm. c, Luxol Fast Blue Staining of spinal cord from control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 50 μm. d, Immunoblot of ARF1, myelin proteins, GFAP, IBA1, and NeuN in spinal cords of control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. e-f, Immunofluorescence (e) staining for PSD95, Synaptophysin (SYP) and Hoechst, and quantification of PSD95-positive and synaptophysin-positive synapses (f) in spinal cords from control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 50 μm (top), 20 μm (bottom). g-h, Representative spinal cord sections from mice with the control and neuronal ARF1-KO were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining (g) for NEFM & NEFH, IBA1, and Hoechst, and quantification of NEFM & NEFH dots (h). Scale bar: 50 μm (top), 10 μm (bottom). i, Electron microscopy (EM) images of axons in the medulla of control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 4 μm (top), 1 μm (top). j, Quantification of degenerated neurons in the EM sections. (e-j: n = 12 images observed from 3 mice). k, G-ratio analysis the EM images from the medulla of control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. l, m, Immunofluorescence staining for IBA1, IL1β and Hoechst (l) and quantification of IL1β (m) in microglia from spinal cords of control and ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice. (n = 15 images of observation in 3 mice). n, o, Immunofluorescence staining for IBA1, ASC and Hoechst (n), and quantification of ASC in microglia (o) from spinal cords of control and ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice. (n = 20 images observed from 3 mice). l & n: Scale bar: 50 μm (left), 10 μm (middle and right). Data representative one of three independent experiments, data represented as mean ± SEM. P value was calculated by two-tailed t-test.
Extended Data Fig. 5 ARF1-ablated neurons promote formation of lipid droplets.
a, Electron microscopy showed lipid aggregates formulated in axons of neuronal ARF1-KO mice spinal cords. Scale bar: 500 nm. Data represents one of three independent experiments. b, c, Oil Red O staining (b) and quantification of Oil-Red-O-positive cells (c) of spinal cords from control and the neuronal ARF1-KO mice. Scale bar: 50 μm. Quantification of 20 images from three mice per group. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. d, Immunofluorescence stained with MitoSOXTM and MAP2 in primary culture neurons treated with Arf1 inhibitors GCA, BFA or DMSO. Scale bar: 10 μm. e-g, Treatment of control and the neuronal ARF1-KO mice with saline or mitochondrial ROS inhibitor MitoTempo (5 mg/kg) from day 6 to day 20 and checked the neurodegenerative phenotypes. n = 6 per group, 3 male and 3 female mice. Data representative one of three independent experiments. Data are represented as mean with each replicate. P value was calculated using two-tailed t-test in Fig.b, and Two-way ANOVA (or mixed model) with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test in Fig. e-g.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Lipid droplets exist in microglia but not astrocytes in the ARF1-deleted mice.
a,b, Immunofluorescence imaging (a) and quantification (b) of Bodipy-C11 in spinal cord of control and the ubiquitous Arf1-KO mice. (n = 15 images from 3 mice). Scale bar: 10 μm. c, d, Immunofluorescence imaging (c) and quantification (d) of BD-C11 and GFAP-positive astrocytes in spinal cord of control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. (n = 20 images from 3 mice). Scale bar: 10 μm. e,f, Immunofluorescence staining (e) and quantification (f) of BD-C11 and IBA1-positive microglia in spinal cord of control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. (n = 16 per group from 3 mice). Data are represented as mean ± SEM. g,h, Control (Arf1+/-) and neuronal ARF1-KO (Arf1-/-) mice were treated with PBS, AD4, and oxATP and assayed for various phenotypes: (g) neurological score and (h) balance beam test. (n = 5 mice per genotype). Data are represented as mean ± SEM with each replicate. i, Immunofluorescence staining for BD-C11 and Hoechst in spinal cord sections of control and neuronal Arf1-/- mice with indicated treatments. (n = 5 mice per condition), scale bars: 10 μm. j, MDA levels in spinal cord lysates from control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice with the indicated treatments (n = 5 per condition). k, quantification of peroxidated BD-C11 cells in neuronal Arf1-KO (Arf1-/-) mice and control mice with indicated treatments (n = 15 images observed from 3 mice). Data representative one of three independent experiments. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. P value in Fig. b, d, f, j, k using two-tailed t-test. P-value was calculated in Fig. g, h by Two-way ANOVA (or mixed model) with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test.
Extended Data Fig. 7 AD4 and oxATP significantly suppressed the phenotypes associated with ARF1 ablation.
Control (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/+, Arf1+/-) and the neuronal ARF1-KO (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/f, Arf1-/-) mice were treated with PBS, AD4, and oxATP and assayed for various phenotypes: a, Mitochondrial ROS was directly examined by using MitoSOX from mice with the indicated genotypes and treatments, then stained with MitoSOXTM (red) and MAP2 (green). Scale bars: 5 μm. Data represents one of three independent experiments. b,c, The synapses were checked by staining VGLUT1 and PSD95 (b) and quantified (c) in the spinal cord sections from mice with the indicated genotypes and treatments. (n = 20 images observed from 3 mice). Scale bars: 5 μm. d,e, Immunohistochemical staining (d) and quantification (e) for IBA1 and GFAP in spinal cords from mice with the indicated genotypes and treatments. Scale bar: 50 μm. (n = 8 images observed from 3 mice). f, Immunoblot of GSDMD, N-terminal GSDMD and Caspase11 in spinal cord lysates from control (Arf+/-) and neuronal ARF1-KO (Arf1-/-) mice. GAPDH was used as loading control. Data represents one of three independent experiments. g, The levels of several cytokines, complement C1q and C3 were measured by qRT-PCR in the mouse spinal cord lysates of control and neuronal ARF1-KO mice. (n = 4 mice in each group). h-j, The levels of Tnf and Il1α were measured by qRT-PCR from isolated microglia (h), Astrocytes (i), and neurons (j), in control and neuronal Arf1-KO mice. (n = 4 per group). k-n, The Levels of IL1α (k), IL1β (l), IL18 (m), TNF (n) were measured by ELISA in the mouse spinal cord lysates of control andneuronal ARF1-KO with treatments. (n = 5 per group). Data are represented one of three independent experiments and shown as mean ± SEM. P value was calculated by two-tailed t-test.
Extended Data Fig. 8 Knocking down Nlrp3 suppressed the neurodegenerative phenotypes of the neuronal ARF1-KO mice.
a-j, The defects of synapses in neuronal ARF1-KO mice were restored by MCC905 treatment (a, b) or NLRP3 knockout (c, d). Synapses were checked by staining of VGLUT1 and PSD95 (a, c) and quantified (b, d) in the spinal cord from mice with the indicated genotypes. Data represents one of three independent experiments. e-j, The MitoSOX signals were suppressed in the neuronal ARF1-KO mice after MCC950 treatment (e) or in NLRP3 knockout (f). However, the lipid peroxidation associated with neuronal ARF1-KO mice was not suppressed after MCC950 treatment (g, h) or NLRP3 knockout (i, j). Scale bars 5 μm. (b & d: n = 19, h & j: n = 6 images observed from 3 mice, one represented experiment from three independent replicates). k, Western blot of GPX4 in spinal cord of control (Arf1+/-) and neuronal ARF1-KO mice (Arf1-/-), β-ACTIN was used as a loading control. Data represents one of three independent experiments. l, experiment set up for ferroptosis inhibitor treatment of mice. m, Inhibition of ferroptosis did not alleviate the neurodegenerative phenotypes of neuronal ARF1-KO mice. (Arf1+/-+DMSO & Arf1-/- + Baicalein, n = 5 each group, 3 male 2 female mice; other groups: n = 6 per group, 3 male and 3 female mice). Data are represented one of three independent experiments and shown as mean ± SEM or mean with each replicate. P value was calculated using two-tailed t-test in Fig. b, d, h, j or two-way ANOVA (mixed model) with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test in Fig. m.
Extended Data Fig. 9 Inflammation relative genes transcriptional change in spinal cords of control and the ARF1-KO mice.
a–d, Genes transcriptional change in spinal cords of control and the neuronal ARF1-KO mice. Heatmaps that show differentially expressed genes with changes >2, >4 and p < 0.05 in spinal cords of control (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/+, Arf1+/-) and neuronal ARF1-KO (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/f, Arf1-/-) mice. (n = 3 per group). e, Heatmaps that show differentially expressed inflammasome-related genes with changes >1 in spinal cords of control (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/+, Arf1+/-) and neuronal ARF1-KO (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/f, Arf1-/-) mice. (n = 3 per group). f, Enriched ontology clusters in spinal cords of neuronal ARF1-KO mice. The most enriched clusters up-regulated genes are shown in neuronal ARF1-KO in comparison with control mice.
Extended Data Fig. 10 The most down-regulated and up-regulated gene groups in spinal cords of neuronal ARF1-KO mice.
a-d, The most down-regulated and up-regulated genes related to myelin and inflammatory responses are shown in neuronal ARF1-KO in comparison with control mice. Myelin sheath genes (a) and inflammatory response genes (c) were shown in spinal cord of neuronal ARF1-KO mice. The networks of Myelin sheath genes (b) and the inflammatory genes (d) through analyzing protein-protein interaction (PPI) using WebGestalt online software. e, Proposed model of ARF1-ablation-induced neurodegeneration.
Supplementary information
Supplementary Information
Supplementary Tables 1 and 2.
Supplementary Video 1
Representative video of 2-month-old control mice (UBC-CreER/Arf1f/+; Arf1+/−) after tamoxifen injection for 22 d.
Supplementary Video 2
Representative video of 2-month-old ubiquitous ARF1-KO mice (UBC-CreER/Arf1f/f; Arf1−/−) after tamoxifen injection for 22 d.
Supplementary Video 3
Representative video of 2-month-old neuronal control mice (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/+; Arf1+/−) after tamoxifen injection for 23 d.
Supplementary Video 4
Representative video of 2-month-old neuronal ARF1-KO mice (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/f; Arf1−/−) after tamoxifen injection for 23 d.
Supplementary Video 5
Representative video of 2-month-old double neuronal ARF1 and NLRP3 knockout mice (Thy1-CreER/Arf1f/f/NLRP3−/−; Arf1−/−/NLRP3−/−) after tamoxifen injection for 22 d.
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Wang, G., Yin, W., Shin, H. et al. Neuronal accumulation of peroxidated lipids promotes demyelination and neurodegeneration through the activation of the microglial NLRP3 inflammasome. Nat Aging 1, 1024–1037 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43587-021-00130-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43587-021-00130-7
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