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Deep, ultra-hot-melting residues as cradles of mantle diamond

Nature volume 615, pages 450–454 (2023)Cite this article

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Abstract

The ancient stable continents are up to 250 km deep, with roots extending into the diamond stability field1. These cratons owe their mechanical strength to being cool and rigid2, features inherited from extensive melt extraction1,3. The most prominent model for craton formation anticipates dominant melting at relatively shallow depth (50–100 km) above diamond stability4,5,6,7, followed by later imbrication to form the deeper roots8,9. Here we present results from thermodynamic and geochemical modelling of melting at sufficiently high temperatures to produce the very magnesian olivine of cratonic roots10. The new closed-system and open-system modelling reproduces the observed cratonic mantle mineral compositions by deep (about 200 km) and very hot melting (≥1,800 °C), obviating the need for shallow melting and stacking. The modelled highly magnesian liquids (komatiites) evolve to Al-enriched and Ti-depleted forms, as observed in the greenstone belts at the fossil surface of cratons11. The paucity of Ti-depleted komatiite12 implies that advanced closed-system isochemical melting (>1,825 °C) was much less common than open-system interaction between deeper liquids and melting of existing refractory mantle. The highly refractory compositions of diamond inclusion minerals could imply preferential diamond growth in the more reducing parts of the cratonic root, depleted by ultra-hot melting in response to heat plumes from a deeper former boundary layer that vanished at the end of the Archaean13.

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Fig. 1: Stability fields, abundances and selected chemical attributes of modelled mantle minerals.
Fig. 2: Modelled loss of HREEs during progressive melt extraction from deep mantle.
Fig. 3: Geodynamic model explaining the evolution of deep cratonic mantle, related volcanic rock chemistry and formation of diamond cradles.

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Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available in the paper or its supplementary files (also available on EarthChem https://doi.org/10.26022/ieda/112711), or otherwise available on reasonable request from the corresponding author. Source data are provided with this paper.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank D. Murphy, S. Tappe, C. Gaina and C. Herzberg for discussions on this research topic. Constructive reviews from the journal reviewers (M. Kopylova and anonymous) helped to improve the original manuscript. C.W. thanks O. Lexa for developing and updating pypsbuilder to run the most recent version of THERMOCALC and R. Emo for input on thermodynamic modelling. C.W. acknowledges support from a QUT Postgraduate Research Award.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

    Carl Walsh & Balz S. Kamber

  2. Geology, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

    Emma L. Tomlinson

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  1. Carl Walsh
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Contributions

C.W. performed all the THERMOCALC and final trace element modelling, drafted most figures, wrote a manuscript outline and prepared the methods, extended data and supplementary data files and revised all of these. B.S.K. wrote most of the paper, edited several iterations and the methods and extended data files, and drafted Fig. 3 and revised the manuscript. E.L.T. conceived the original idea, collated literature data, performed preliminary trace element modelling and edited iterations of the full and revised manuscript. B.S.K. and E.L.T. discussed and advanced the research ideas.

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Correspondence to Balz S. Kamber.

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended Data Fig. 1 Cr in garnet and olivine Fo distribution from compiled literature with model results.

Histograms of: Cr concentrations in global cratonic peridotite garnet and garnet DIs (a)18,37,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110; forsterite component in cratonic peridotite olivine and olivine DIs (b)8,24; garnet Cr2O3 concentrations in incremental melt model residues and batch KR4003 melt model residues during melting (c); garnet Cr2O3 over the melting interval of hybrid compositions (d). Note that DI versus peridotite distinction in a and b is more pronounced on a craton-by-craton basis than in the global database.

Source Data

Extended Data Fig. 2 THERMOCALC pressure–temperature pseudosections of the four incremental model systems whose chemical compositions are listed in Extended Data Table 1.

Equilibrium phase assemblage is shown for 1,000–2,000 °C, 20–60 kbar for KR4003 (a), Ext1 (b), Ext2 (c) and Ext2.5 (d). Each subsequent composition is more refractory than the last, reflected in the increasing simplicity of the phase assemblages and higher liquidus temperatures.

Extended Data Fig. 3 THERMOCALC pressure–temperature pseudosections of open-system models.

Hybrids #1 (a) and #2 (b) are 1:2 mixtures of experimental AUK22,46 with Ext2 of the incremental model. Hybrid #3 (c) uses the more refractory Ext2.5 composition at a 1:4 ratio (see Methods for details). The pyroxene structure stabilized by THERMOCALC is sensitive to compositional ‘starting guesses’ illustrated in a and b, in which low-Ca clinopyroxene and high-Ca orthopyroxene have the same composition and are effectively interchangeable.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Effect of open versus closed systems on forsterite and Cr2O3 in garnet during advanced melting.

Open-system and batch models show similar evolution in forsterite during progressive melting characterized by a continuous steep increase in forsterite until orthopyroxene is exhausted compared with delayed increase in forsterite component associated with incremental melt extraction. Maximum Cr2O3 in garnet is <15 wt% in hybrid-system models compared with >17 wt% during incremental melt extraction without komatiite input (incremental model).

Source Data

Extended Data Fig. 5 THERMOCALC pressure–temperature pseudosections of the incremental model components after KR4003 with spinel enabled.

a, Ext1. b, Ext2. c, Ext2.5. Progressively more refractory compositions show increased spinel stability up to almost 7 GPa in Ext2.5, albeit at very low modal abundances (<0.007 at 5 GPa). Below 7 GPa, spinel replaces garnet or orthopyroxene as the last phase to coexist with olivine and melt. This unexpected high-pressure-stability spinel is attributed to increased MgO and Cr2O3 in the residue (over)stabilizing picrochromite in THERMOCALC21 (see Methods for more details). The effect on Cr2O3 in garnet is only observed close to garnet exhaustion, in which Cr-rich garnet (<13 wt% Cr2O3) converts to a spinel structure.

Extended Data Fig. 6 Effect of selection of partition coefficients on HREE concentration in modelled residues.

The red line shows the trajectory of the 7-GPa isobaric melt model redrafted from Wittig et al.7 starting at primitive mantle (PM)111. In their model, both Lu and Yb become more enriched with increasing melt fraction until garnet-out (g-out; black dot). We used partition coefficients from references given in Wittig et al.7 to fit a simple modal batch melting model to their 7-GPa isobaric trajectory. This model used a generic set of partition coefficients for mantle phases to yield bulk partition coefficients of DYb = 8.47 and DLu = 9.46. These result in retention of Lu and Yb in garnet-bearing residues. Individually calculated coefficients for the specific P–T–X conditions (see Methods for details) are considerably lower. They result in an opposite Lu versus Yb trajectory (shown in orange) for an otherwise identical model. Melt fractions are annotated for both models. It is noted that the garnet partition coefficients used in the 7-GPa isobaric model were experimentally derived for a very different tectonic setting—decompression melting beneath a mid-ocean ridge112.

Source Data

Extended Data Fig. 7 Covariation in Al over Mg depletion versus ytterbium depletion.

Whole-rock data for n = 183 cratonic xenoliths from various cratons7,18,106 (colour-coded as per legend) show a positive correlation between depletion in Al (relative to Mg) and Yb concentration. Superimposed on the observed data is the trend modelled for the restite after isobaric 5-GPa incremental melt loss. This shows the decreasing fertility as the composition trends away from primitive-mantle-like solid composition as gradual consumption of garnet through the series of melting reactions (Fig. 2 inset) reduced Al and increased Mg (see Extended Data Table 1). The gradual consumption of garnet, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene cause the concomitant decrease in Yb concentration in the restite. The incremental model follows the trend of cratonic xenolith data away from primitive mantle, unlike high-pressure trends suggested in other studies6.

Source Data

Extended Data Fig. 8 Comparison of major element composition of Commondale parental melt with incremental melt model liquid at 5 GPa and 1,827 °C.

There is a generally very strong similarity with oxides plotting above the line slightly enriched in the model (Supplementary Data 1) compared with Commondale komatiite parental melt12. Oxides below the theoretical 1:1 line are underestimated in the model.

Source Data

Extended Data Table 1 Major element compositions of experimental starting materials and modelled compositions
Full size table
Extended Data Table 2 Incremental model HREE concentrations at 5 GPa
Full size table

Supplementary information

Supplementary Data 1

Isochemical incremental model outputs as phase proportions and chemistries in mass units at 2 °C increments at 5 GPa from solidus to liquidus.

Supplementary Data 2

Isochemical single-batch model outputs as phase proportions and chemistries in mass units at 2 °C increments at 5 GPa from solidus to liquidus.

Supplementary Data 3

Open-system hybrid #1 model outputs as phase proportions and chemistry in mass units at 1 °C increments at 5 GPa from solidus to liquidus.

Supplementary Data 4

Open-system hybrid #3 model outputs as phase proportions and chemistry in mass units at 1 °C increments at 5 GPa from solidus to liquidus.

Supplementary Data 5

Contains inputs for the HREE incongruent dynamic melting model. Includes partition coefficients, melting stoichiometry and starting proportions of each melting reaction (Fig. 2 inset) in the incremental model at 5 GPa.

Source data

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Walsh, C., Kamber, B.S. & Tomlinson, E.L. Deep, ultra-hot-melting residues as cradles of mantle diamond. Nature 615, 450–454 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05665-2

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