Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Preterm birth and mortality in adulthood: a systematic review

Journal of Perinatology volume 40, pages 833–843 (2020)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Preterm birth (gestational age < 37 weeks) has a worldwide prevalence of nearly 11%, and >95% of preterm infants who receive modern neonatal and pediatric care now survive into adulthood. However, improved early survival has been accompanied by long-term increased risks of various chronic disorders, prompting investigations to determine whether preterm birth leads to higher mortality risks in adulthood. A systematic review identified eight studies with a total of 6,594,424 participants that assessed gestational age at birth in relation to all-cause or cause-specific mortality at any ages ≥18 years. All six studies that included persons born in 1967 or later reported positive associations between preterm birth and all-cause mortality in adulthood (attained ages, 18–45 years). Most adjusted relative risks ranged from 1.2 to 1.6 for preterm birth, 1.1 to 1.2 for early term birth (37–38 weeks), and 1.9 to 4.0 for extremely preterm birth (22–27 weeks), compared with full-term birth (variably defined but including 39–41 weeks). These findings appeared independent of sociodemographic, perinatal, and maternal factors (all studies), and unmeasured shared familial factors in co-sibling analyses (assessed in four studies). Four of these studies also explored cause-specific mortality and reported associations with multiple causes, including respiratory, cardiovascular, endocrine, and neurological. Two smaller studies based on an earlier cohort born in 1915–1929 found no clear association with all-cause mortality but positive associations with selected cause-specific mortality. The overall evidence indicates that premature birth during the past 50 years is associated with modestly increased mortality in early to mid-adulthood.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Chawanpaiboon S, Vogel JP, Moller AB, Lumbiganon P, Petzold M, Hogan D, et al. Global, regional, and national estimates of levels of preterm birth in 2014: a systematic review and modelling analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2019;7:e37–e46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Manley BJ, Doyle LW, Davies MW, Davis PG. Fifty years in neonatology. J Paediatr Child Health. 2015;51:118–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Raju TNK, Pemberton VL, Saigal S, Blaisdell CJ, Moxey-Mims M, Buist S, et al. Long-term healthcare outcomes of preterm birth: an executive summary of a conference sponsored by the national institutes of health. J Pediatr. 2017;181:309–18 e301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Raju TNK, Buist AS, Blaisdell CJ, Moxey-Mims M, Saigal S. Adults born preterm: a review of general health and system-specific outcomes. Acta Paediatr. 2017;106:1409–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Crump C, Sundquist J, Winkleby MA, Sundquist K. Gestational age at birth and mortality from infancy into mid-adulthood: a national cohort study. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2019;3:408–17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Crump C, Sundquist K, Sundquist J, Winkleby MA. Gestational age at birth and mortality in young adulthood. JAMA. 2011;306:1233–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Saigal S, Doyle LW. An overview of mortality and sequelae of preterm birth from infancy to adulthood. Lancet. 2008;371:261–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Blencowe H, Cousens S, Chou D, Oestergaard M, Say L, Moller AB, et al. Born too soon: the global epidemiology of 15 million preterm births. Reprod Health. 2013;10(Suppl 1):S2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Katz J, Lee AC, Kozuki N, Lawn JE, Cousens S, Blencowe H, et al. Mortality risk in preterm and small-for-gestational-age infants in low-income and middle-income countries: a pooled country analysis. Lancet. 2013;382:417–25.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. EXPRESS Group, Fellman V, Hellstrom-Westas L, Norman M, Westgren M, Kallen K, et al. One-year survival of extremely preterm infants after active perinatal care in Sweden. JAMA. 2009;301:2225–33.

  11. Ancel PY, Goffinet F, EPIPAGE-2 Writing Group, Kuhn P, Langer B, Matis J, et al. Survival and morbidity of preterm children born at 22 through 34 weeks’ gestation in France in 2011: results of the EPIPAGE-2 cohort study. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169:230–8.

  12. Swamy GK, Ostbye T, Skjaerven R. Association of preterm birth with long-term survival, reproduction, and next-generation preterm birth. JAMA. 2008;299:1429–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Bell EF, Walsh MC, Carlo WA, Shankaran S, et al. Trends in care practices, morbidity, and mortality of extremely preterm neonates, 1993-2012. JAMA. 2015;314:1039–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Patel RM, Kandefer S, Walsh MC, Bell EF, Carlo WA, Laptook AR, et al. Causes and timing of death in extremely premature infants from 2000 through 2011. N. Engl J Med. 2015;372:331–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. De Jesus LC, Pappas A, Shankaran S, Kendrick D, Das A, Higgins RD, et al. Risk factors for post-neonatal intensive care unit discharge mortality among extremely low birth weight infants. J Pediatr. 2012;161:70–74 e71.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Matthews TJ, MacDorman MF, Thoma ME. Infant mortality statistics from the 2013 period linked birth/infant death data set. Natl Vital- Stat Rep. 2015;64:1–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Watkins WJ, Kotecha SJ, Kotecha S. All-cause mortality of low birthweight infants in infancy, childhood, and adolescence: population study of England and Wales. PLoS Med. 2016;13:e1002018.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Fleiss JL, Levin B, Paik MC. Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley; 2003.

  19. Crump C, Sundquist K, Winkleby MA, Sundquist J. Early-term birth (37-38 weeks) and mortality in young adulthood. Epidemiology. 2013;24:270–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Risnes KR, Pape K, Bjorngaard JH, Moster D, Bracken MB, Romundstad PR. Premature adult death in individuals born preterm: a sibling comparison in a prospective nationwide follow-up study. PLoS ONE. 2016;11:e0165051.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Juarez S, Goodman A, De Stavola B, Koupil I. Birth characteristics and all-cause mortality: a sibling analysis using the Uppsala birth cohort multigenerational study. J Dev Orig Health Dis. 2016;7:374–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. D’Onofrio BM, Class QA, Rickert ME, Larsson H, Langstrom N, Lichtenstein P. Preterm birth and mortality and morbidity: a population-based quasi-experimental study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70:1231–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Srinivasjois R, Nembhard W, Wong K, Bourke J, Pereira G, Leonard H. Risk of mortality into adulthood according to gestational age at birth. J Pediatr. 2017;190:185–91 e181.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Koupil I, Leon DA, Lithell HO. Length of gestation is associated with mortality from cerebrovascular disease. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2005;59:473–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Donovan SJ, Susser E. Commentary: advent of sibling designs. Int J Epidemiol. 2011;40:345–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. D’Onofrio BM, Lahey BB, Turkheimer E, Lichtenstein P. Critical need for family-based, quasi-experimental designs in integrating genetic and social science research. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(Suppl 1):S46–55.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Moster D, Lie RT, Markestad T. Long-term medical and social consequences of preterm birth. N. Engl J Med. 2008;359:262–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Knol MJ, Egger M, Scott P, Geerlings MI, Vandenbroucke JP. When one depends on the other: reporting of interaction in case-control and cohort studies. Epidemiology. 2009;20:161–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Greenland S. Interactions in epidemiology: relevance, identification, and estimation. Epidemiology. 2009;20:14–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Crump C, Sundquist K, Winkleby MA. Transnational research partnerships: leveraging big data to enhance US health. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2015;69:1029–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Hogberg U, Larsson N. Early dating by ultrasound and perinatal outcome. A cohort study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1997;76:907–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services. Routine ultrasound examination during pregnancy. 1998 [cited 10 October, 2019] Available from: https://www.sbu.se/en/publications/sbu-assesses/routine-ultrasound-examination-during-pregnancy/

  33. Risnes KR, Vatten LJ, Baker JL, Jameson K, Sovio U, Kajantie E, et al. Birthweight and mortality in adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 2011;40:647–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Ingelfinger JR, Nuyt AM. Impact of fetal programming, birth weight, and infant feeding on later hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2012;14:365–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Abitbol CL, Rodriguez MM. The long-term renal and cardiovascular consequences of prematurity. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2012;8:265–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Baraldi E, Filippone M. Chronic lung disease after premature birth. N. Engl J Med. 2007;357:1946–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Urs R, Kotecha S, Hall GL, Simpson SJ. Persistent and progressive long-term lung disease in survivors of preterm birth. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2018;28:87–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Barker DJ. In utero programming of chronic disease. Clin Sci (Lond). 1998;95:115–28.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Barker DJ. The origins of the developmental origins theory. J Intern Med. 2007;261:412–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Gillman MW, Barker D, Bier D, Cagampang F, Challis J, Fall C, et al. Meeting report on the 3rd International Congress on Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD). Pediatr Res. 2007;61(5 Pt 1):625–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Matthews SG, McGowan PO. Developmental programming of the HPA axis and related behaviours: epigenetic mechanisms. J Endocrinol. 2019;242:T69–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Bolton CE, Bush A, Hurst JR, Kotecha S, McGarvey L. Lung consequences in adults born prematurely. Thorax. 2015;70:574–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Vollsaeter M, Clemm HH, Satrell E, Eide GE, Roksund OD, Markestad T, et al. Adult respiratory outcomes of extreme preterm birth. A regional cohort study. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2015;12:313–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Clemm HH, Vollsaeter M, Roksund OD, Eide GE, Markestad T, Halvorsen T. Exercise capacity after extremely preterm birth. Development from adolescence to adulthood. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2014;11:537–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Vollsaeter M, Roksund OD, Eide GE, Markestad T, Halvorsen T. Lung function after preterm birth: development from mid-childhood to adulthood. Thorax. 2013;68:767–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Crump C, Winkleby MA, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Risk of asthma in young adults who were born preterm: a Swedish national cohort study. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e913–920.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Saarenpaa HK, Tikanmaki M, Sipola-Leppanen M, Hovi P, Wehkalampi K, Siltanen M, et al. Lung function in very low birth weight adults. Pediatrics. 2015;136:642–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. de Jong F, Monuteaux MC, van Elburg RM, Gillman MW, Belfort MB. Systematic review and meta-analysis of preterm birth and later systolic blood pressure. Hypertension. 2012;59:226–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Crump C, Winkleby MA, Sundquist K, Sundquist J. Risk of hypertension among young adults who were born preterm: a Swedish national study of 636,000 births. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;173:797–803.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Johansson S, Iliadou A, Bergvall N, Tuvemo T, Norman M, Cnattingius S. Risk of high blood pressure among young men increases with the degree of immaturity at birth. Circulation. 2005;112:3430–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Hovi P, Vohr B, Ment LR, Doyle LW, McGarvey L, Morrison KM, et al. Blood pressure in young adults born at very low birth weight: adults born preterm international collaboration. Hypertension. 2016;68:880–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Parkinson JR, Hyde MJ, Gale C, Santhakumaran S, Modi N. Preterm birth and the metabolic syndrome in adult life: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2013;131:e1240–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Crump C, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Preterm birth and risk of type 1 and type 2 diabetes: a national cohort study. Diabetologia. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-019-05044-z. [Epub ahead of print].

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Kajantie E, Strang-Karlsson S, Hovi P, Wehkalampi K, Lahti J, Kaseva N, et al. Insulin sensitivity and secretory response in adults born preterm: the Helsinki Study of Very Low Birth Weight Adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100:244–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Mathai S, Cutfield WS, Derraik JG, Dalziel SR, Harding JE, Robinson E, et al. Insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function in adults born preterm and their children. Diabetes. 2012;61:2479–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Crump C, Winkleby MA, Sundquist K, Sundquist J. Risk of diabetes among young adults born preterm in Sweden. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:1109–13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Hofman PL, Regan F, Jackson WE, Jefferies C, Knight DB, Robinson EM, et al. Premature birth and later insulin resistance. N. Engl J Med. 2004;351:2179–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Crump C, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Association of preterm birth with lipid disorders in early adulthood: A Swedish cohort study. PLoS Med. 2019;16:e1002947.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Hovi P, Kajantie E, Soininen P, Kangas AJ, Jarvenpaa AL, Andersson S, et al. Lipoprotein subclass profiles in young adults born preterm at very low birth weight. Lipids Health Dis. 2013;12:57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Markopoulou P, Papanikolaou E, Analytis A, Zoumakis E, Siahanidou T. Preterm birth as a risk factor for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in adult life: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pediatr. 2019;210:69–80 e65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Crump C, Sundquist K, Sundquist J. Prematurity and mortality in childhood and early adulthood (reply). JAMA. 2012;307:32–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Crump C, Winkleby MA, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Preterm birth and risk of medically treated hypothyroidism in young adulthood. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2011;75:255–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Phillips DI, Cooper C, Fall C, Prentice L, Osmond C, Barker DJ, Rees-Smith B. 1993 Fetal growth and autoimmune thyroid disease. Q J Med. 1993;86:247–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Kajantie E, Phillips DI, Osmond C, Barker DJ, Forsen T, Eriksson JG. Spontaneous hypothyroidism in adult women is predicted by small body size at birth and during childhood. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:4953–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Crump C, Sundquist J, Winkleby MA, Sundquist K. Preterm birth and risk of chronic kidney disease from childhood into mid-adulthood: national cohort study. BMJ. 2019;365:l1346.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Ruggajo P, Skrunes R, Svarstad E, Skjaerven R, Reisaether AV, Vikse BE. Familial factors, low birth weight, and development of ESRD: A Nationwide Registry Study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2016;67:601–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Crump C, Howell EA, Stroustrup A, McLaughlin MA, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Association of Preterm Birth With Risk of Ischemic Heart Disease in Adulthood. JAMA Pediatr. 2019, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.1327. [epub ahead of print].

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Zoller B, Sundquist J, Sundquist K, Crump C. Perinatal risk factors for premature ischaemic heart disease in a Swedish national cohort. BMJ Open. 2015;5:e007308.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Zoller B, Li X, Sundquist J, Sundquist K, Crump C. Gestational age and risk of venous thromboembolism from birth through young adulthood. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e473–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Crump C, Friberg D, Li X, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Preterm birth and risk of sleep-disordered breathing from childhood into mid-adulthood. Int J Epidemiol. 2019, pii: dyz075. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz075. [epub ahead of print].

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Paavonen EJ, Strang-Karlsson S, Raikkonen K, Heinonen K, Pesonen AK, Hovi P, et al. Very low birth weight increases risk for sleep-disordered breathing in young adulthood: the Helsinki Study of Very Low Birth Weight Adults. Pediatrics. 2007;120:778–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Crump C, Sundquist K, Winkleby MA, Sundquist J. Preterm birth and risk of epilepsy in Swedish adults. Neurology. 2011;77:1376–82.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Li W, Peng A, Deng S, Lai W, Qiu X, Zhang L, et al. Do premature and postterm birth increase the risk of epilepsy? An updated meta-analysis. Epilepsy Behav. 2019;97:83–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Nosarti C, Reichenberg A, Murray RM, Cnattingius S, Lambe MP, Yin L, et al. Preterm birth and psychiatric disorders in young adult life. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69:E1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Crump C, Winkleby MA, Sundquist K, Sundquist J. Preterm birth and psychiatric medication prescription in young adulthood: a Swedish national cohort study. Int J Epidemiol. 2010;39:1522–30.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Monfils Gustafsson W, Josefsson A, Ekholm Selling K, Sydsjo G. Preterm birth or foetal growth impairment and psychiatric hospitalization in adolescence and early adulthood in a Swedish population-based birth cohort. Acta Psychiatr Scandinavica. 2009;119:54–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Hack M, Youngstrom EA, Cartar L, Schluchter M, Taylor HG, Flannery D, et al. Behavioral outcomes and evidence of psychopathology among very low birth weight infants at age 20 years. Pediatrics. 2004;114:932–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Lund LK, Vik T, Skranes J, Brubakk AM, Indredavik MS. Psychiatric morbidity in two low birth weight groups assessed by diagnostic interview in young adulthood. Acta Paediatr. 2011;100:598–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Burnett AC, Anderson PJ, Cheong J, Doyle LW, Davey CG, Wood SJ. Prevalence of psychiatric diagnoses in preterm and full-term children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. Psychological Med. 2011;41:2463–74.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. de Jong M, Verhoeven M, van Baar AL. School outcome, cognitive functioning, and behaviour problems in moderate and late preterm children and adults: a review. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;17:163–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Crump C, Winkleby MA, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Prevalence of survival without major comorbidities among adults born prematurely. JAMA. 2019;322:1580–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Bolton CE, Bush A, Hurst JR, Kotecha S, McGarvey L, Stocks J, et al. Are early life factors considered when managing respiratory disease? A British Thoracic Society survey of current practice. Thorax. 2012;67:1110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Crump C. Medical history taking in adults should include questions about preterm birth. BMJ. 2014;349:g4860.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Crump C. Birth history is forever: implications for family medicine. J Am Board Fam Med. 2015;28:121–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Crump C, Sundquist K, Sundquist J. Adult outcomes of preterm birth. Prev Med. 2016;91:400–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This work was supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute at the National Institutes of Health (R01 HL139536). The funding agency had no role in the design and conduct of the study; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data; or in the writing of the manuscript or the decision to submit it for publication.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departments of Family Medicine and Community Health and of Population Health Science and Policy, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA

    Casey Crump

Authors
  1. Casey Crump
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Casey Crump.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The author declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Crump, C. Preterm birth and mortality in adulthood: a systematic review. J Perinatol 40, 833–843 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41372-019-0563-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41372-019-0563-y

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links