Abstract
After more than two decades of rising rates, in recent years the total kidney cancer incidence worldwide has shown signs of stabilizing, or even decreasing. In adults, kidney cancer consists of renal cell carcinoma (RCC), the predominant form, and renal transitional cell carcinoma (RTCC); these types primarily arise in the renal parenchyma and renal pelvis, respectively. Although temporal trends by kidney cancer type are not well established worldwide, incidence of RCC in the US has continued to rise, mainly for early-stage tumors, while that of RTCC has declined, and total kidney cancer mortality rates have leveled. Stabilization of kidney cancer mortality rates has also been reported in Europe. These trends are consistent with reports of increasing incidental diagnoses and a downward shift in tumor stage and size in clinical series. The changing prevalence of known risk factors for RCC, including cigarette smoking, obesity, and hypertension, is also likely to affect incidence trends, although their relative impact may differ between populations. Accumulating evidence suggests an etiologic role in RCC for physical activity, alcohol consumption, occupational exposure to trichloroethylene, and high parity among women, but further research is needed into the potential causal effects of these factors. Genetic factors and their interaction with environmental exposures are believed to influence risk of developing RCC, but a limited number of studies using candidate-gene approaches have not produced conclusive results. Large consortium efforts employing genome-wide scanning technology are underway, which hold promise for novel discoveries in renal carcinogenesis.
Key Points
-
Kidney cancers among adults arise from the renal parenchyma (adenocarcinoma cell type [RCC]) or renal pelvis (renal transitional cell type [RTCC]); RCC is the predominant kidney cancer type
-
RCC incidence is high in Europe and North America and low in Asia and South America; the rarer RTCC generally show less geographic variation
-
Worldwide, kidney cancer incidence has increased since the late 1970s, until the mid-1990s when it leveled or declined in many countries
-
In the US, RTCC incidence has decreased while RCC incidence has increased—much of this rise is due to the increasing diagnosis of early-stage tumors
-
Cigarette smoking, obesity and hypertension are well-established risk factors for RCC
-
Genetic factors might also influence RCC risk; ongoing large consortium studies promise to identify novel etiologic and prognostic factors for RCC
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$209.00 per year
only $17.42 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Homer, M. J. et al. (eds). SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2006, National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD [online], (2009).
Sudarshan, S. & Linehan, W. M. Genetic basis of cancer of the kidney. Semin. Oncol. 33, 544–551 (2006).
Cheng, L. et al. Molecular and cytogenetic insights into the pathogenesis, classification, differential diagnosis, and prognosis of renal epithelial neoplasms. Hum. Pathol. 40, 10–29 (2009).
Curado, M. P. et al. (eds) Cancer Incidence in Five Continents Vol. IX (IARC Scientific Publications No. 160, Lyon, IARC, 2007).
Stefanovic, V. & Radovanovic, Z. Balkan endemic nephropathy and associated urothelial cancer. Nat. Clin. Pract. Urol. 5, 105–112 (2008).
Cook, M. B. et al. Sex disparities in cancer incidence by period and age. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18, 1174–1182 (2009).
Scélo, G. & Brennan, P. The epidemiology of bladder and kidney cancer. Nat. Clin. Pract. Urol. 4, 205–217 (2007).
Levi, F. et al. The changing pattern of kidney cancer incidence and mortality in Europe. BJU Int. 101, 949–958 (2008).
Devesa, S. S. et al. Comparison of the descriptive epidemiology of urinary tract cancers. Cancer Causes Control 1, 133–141 (1990).
Parkin, D. M., Whelan, S. L., Ferlay, J. & Storm, H. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents Vol. I–VIII (IARC CancerBase No. 7, Lyon, 2005).
Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute SEER*Stat software. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER): SEER*Stat Database: Total US, 1969–2006 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Cancer Statistics Branch [online], (2009).
Katz, D. L., Zheng, T., Holford, T. R. & Flannery, J. Time trends in the incidence of renal carcinoma: analysis of Connecticut tumor registry data, 1935–1989. Int. J. Cancer 58, 57–63 (1994).
Wihlborg, A. & Johansen, C. Incidences of kidney, pelvis, ureter, and bladder cancer in a nationwide, population-based cancer registry, Denmark, 1944–2003. Urology doi:10.1016/j.urology.2009.05.013.
Kane, C. J., Mallin, K., Ritchey, J., Cooperberg, M. R. & Carroll, P. R. Renal cell cancer stage migration: analysis of the National Cancer Data Base. Cancer 113, 78–83 (2008).
Sánchez-Martín, F. M., Millán-Rodríguez, F., Urdaneta-Pignalosa, G., Rubio-Briones, J. & Villavicencio-Mavrich, H. Small renal masses: incidental diagnosis, clinical symptoms, and prognostic factors. Adv. Urol. 2008, 310694 (2008).
Chow, W.-H. & Devesa, S. S. Contemporary epidemiology of renal cell cancer. Cancer J. 14, 288–301 (2008).
Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) SEER*Stat Database: Mortality—All COD: Total US, 1969–2006 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Cancer Statistics Branch, [online], Underlying mortality data—NCHS, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute SEER*Stat software, http://www.seer.cancer.gov/seerstat (2009).
McLaughlin, J. K., Lipworth, l., Tarone, R. E. & Blot, W. J. in Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention 3rd edn (eds Schottenfeld, D. & Fraumeni, J. F. Jr) (New York, Oxford University Press, 2006).
Zeegers, M. P. A., Tan, F. E. S., Dorant, E. & van den Brandt, P. A. The impact of characteristics of cigarette smoking on urinary tract cancer risk: a meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Cancer 89, 630–639 (2000).
IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenesis risks to Humans. Suppl. 7: Overall evaluations of carcinogenicity: an updating of IARC Monographs Vol. 1–42 International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon (1987).
IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenesis Risks to Humans: Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 83 (2004).
McCredie, M. & Stewart, J. H. Risk factors for kidney cancer in New South Wales—I. Cigarette smoking. Eur. J. Cancer 28A, 2050–2054 (1992).
McLaughlin, J. K. et al. Cigarette smoking and cancers of the renal pelvis and ureter. Cancer Res. 52, 254–257 (1992).
Hinson, J. A. Reactive metabolites of phenacetin and acetaminophen: a review. Environ. Health Perspect. 49, 71–79 (1983).
Henrich, W. L. et al. Analgesics and the kidney: summary and recommendations to the Scientific Advisory Board of the National Kidney Foundation from an ad hoc committee of the National Kidney Foundation. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 27, 162–165 (1996).
Friis, S. et al. Cancer risk in persons receiving prescriptions for paracetamol: a Danish cohort study. Int. J. Cancer 97, 96–101 (2002).
Mihatsch, M. J., Khanlari, B. & Brunner, F. P. Obituary to analgesic nephropathy—an autopsy study. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant 21, 3139–3145 (2006).
Michielsen, P. et al. Non-phenacetin analgesics and analgesic nephropathy. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant 24, 1253–1259 (2009).
Nortier, J. L. et al. Urothelial carcinoma associated with the use of a Chinese herb (Aristolochia fangchi). N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 1686–1692 (2000).
Chen, C.-J., Chen, C. W., Wu, M.-M. & Kuo, T.-L. Cancer potential in liver, lung, bladder and kidney due to ingested inorganic arsenic in drinking water. Br. J. Cancer 66, 888–892 (1992).
Hopenhayn-Rich, C., Biggs, M. L. & Smith, A. H. Lung and kidney cancer mortality associated with arsenic in drinking water in Córdoba, Argentina. Int. J. Epidemiol. 27, 561–569 (1998).
Yuan, Y. et al. Kidney cancer mortality: fifty-year latency patterns related to arsenic exposure. Epidemiology 21, 103–108 (2010).
Guo, H.-R., Chiang, H.-S., Hu, H., Lipsitz, S. R. & Monson, R. R. Arsenic in drinking water and incidence of urinary cancers. Epidemiology 8, 545–550 (1997).
Bunnell, J. E. et al. Possible linkages between lignite aquifers, pathogenic microbes, and renal pelvic cancer in northwestern Louisiana, USA. Environ. Geochem. Health 28, 577–587 (2006).
Kurttio, P., Pukkala, E., Kahelin, H., Auvinen, A. & Pekkanen, J. Arsenic concentrations in well water and risk of bladder and kidney cancer in Finland. Environ. Health Perspect. 107, 705–710 (1999).
Meliker, J. R., Wahl, R. L., Cameron, L. L. & Nriagu, J. O. Arsenic in drinking water and cerebrovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and kidney disease in Michigan: a standardized mortality ratio analysis. Environ. Health 6, 4 (2007).
Baastrup, R. et al. Arsenic in drinking-water and risk for cancer in Denmark. Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 231–237 (2008).
Han, Y.-Y., Weissfeld, J. L., Davis, D. L. & Talbott, E. O. Arsenic levels in ground water and cancer incidence in Idaho: an ecologic study. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 82, 843–849 (2009).
Liaw, K.-L. et al. Possible relation between hypertension and cancers of the renal pelvis and ureter. Int. J. Cancer 70, 265–268 (1997).
Chow, W.-H. et al. Risk of urinary tract cancers following kidney or ureter stones. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 89, 1453–1457 (1997).
Chow, W.-H., Gridley, G., Fraumeni, J. F. Jr & Järvholm, B. Obesity, hypertension, and the risk of kidney cancer in men. N. Engl. J. Med. 343, 1305–1311 (2000).
Brock, K. E. et al. Dietary factors and cancers of the renal pelvis and ureter. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15, 1051–1053 (2006).
Wilson, R. T. et al. Shared occupational risks for transitional cell cancer of the bladder and renal pelvis among men and women in Sweden. Am. J. Ind. Med. 51, 83–99 (2008).
US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking: A report of the Surgeon General (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health. Atlanta, GA, 2004).
Hunt, J. D. et al. Renal cell carcinoma in relation to cigarette smoking: meta-analysis of 24 studies. Int. J. Cancer 114, 101–108 (2005).
Thun, M. J., DeLancey, J. O., Center, M. M., Jemal, A. & Ward, E. M. The global burden of cancer: priorities for prevention. Carcinogenesis 31, 100–110 (2010).
Forey, B., Hamling, J., Lee, P. & Wald, N. (eds) International Smoking Statistics. A Collection of Historical Data from 30 Economically Developed Countries 2nd edn (London, Oxford University Press, 2002).
Sharifi, N. & Farrar, W. L. Perturbations in hypoxia detection: a shared link between hereditary and sporadic tumor formation? Med. Hypotheses 66, 732–735 (2006).
Clague, J. et al. Sensitivity to NNKOAc is associated with renal cancer risk. Carcinogenesis 30, 706–710 (2009).
Zhu, Y. et al. BPDE induced lymphocytic chromosome 3p deletions may predict renal cell carcinoma risk. J. Urol. 179, 2416–2421 (2008).
Calle, E. E. & Kaaks, R. Overweight, obesity and cancer: epidemiological evidence and proposed mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Cancer 4, 579–591 (2004).
Oh, S. W., Yoon, Y. S. & Shin, S. A. Effects of excess weight on cancer incidences depending on cancer sites and histologic findings among men: Korea National Health Insurance Corporation Study. J. Clin. Oncol. 23, 4742–4754 (2005).
Pischon, T. et al. Body size and risk of renal cell carcinoma in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Int. J. Cancer 118, 728–738 (2006).
Reeves, G. K. et al. Cancer incidence and mortality in relation to body mass index in the Million Women Study: cohort study. BMJ 335, 1134–1144 (2007).
Adams, K. F. et al. Body size and renal cell cancer incidence in a large US cohort study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 168, 268–277 (2008).
Renehan, A. G. et al. Body-mass index and incidence of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Lancet 371, 569–578 (2008).
World Cancer Research Fund, American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective (AICR, Washington DC, 2007).
Nguyen, D. M. & El-Serag, H. B. The epidemiology of obesity. Gastroenterol. Clin. N. Am. 39, 1–7 (2010).
Popkin, B. M. The nutrition transition: an overview of world patterns of change. Nutr. Rev. 62, S140–S143 (2004).
Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Ogden, C. L. & Curtin, L. R. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2008. JAMA 303, 235–241 (2010).
Klinghoffer, Z., Yang, B., Kapoor, A. & Pinthus, J. H. Obesity and renal cell carcinoma: epidemiology, underlying mechanisms and management considerations. Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther. 9, 975–987 (2009).
Kearney, P. M. et al. Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet 365, 217–223 (2005).
Mittal, B. V. & Singh, A. K. Hypertension in the developing world: challenges and opportunities. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 55, 590–598 (2010).
Steffens, J. et al. Renin-producing renal cell carcinomas—clinical and experimental investigations on a special form of renal hypertension. Urol. Res. 20, 111–115 (1992).
Maitland, M. L. et al. Ambulatory monitoring detects sorafenib-induced blood pressure elevations on the first day of treatment. Clin. Cancer Res. 15, 6250–6257 (2009).
Choi, M. Y. et al. The effect of hypertension on the risk for kidney cancer in Korean men. Kidney Int. 67, 647–652 (2005).
Vatten, L. J. et al. Blood pressure and renal cancer risk: the HUNT Study in Norway. Br. J. Cancer 97, 112–114 (2007).
Weikert, S. et al. Blood pressure and risk of renal cell carcinoma in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am. J. Epidemiol. 167, 438–446 (2008).
Nicodemus, K. K., Sweeney, C. & Folsom, A. R. Evaluation of dietary, medical and lifestyle risk factors for incident kidney cancer in postmenopausal women. Int. J. Cancer 108, 115–121 (2004).
Flaherty, K. T. et al. A prospective study of body mass index, hypertension, and smoking and the risk of renal cell carcinoma (United States). Cancer Causes Control 16, 1099–1106 (2005).
Setiawan, V. W. et al. Risk factors for renal cell cancer: the multiethnic cohort. Am. J. Epidemiol. 166, 932–940 (2007).
Schouten, L. J. et al. Hypertension, antihypertensives and mutations in the von Hippel–Lindau gene in renal cell carcinoma: results from the Netherlands Cohort Study. J. Hypertens. 23, 1997–2004 (2005).
Gago-Dominguez, M. et al. Lipid peroxidation: a novel and unifying concept of the etiology of renal cell carcinoma (United States). Cancer Causes Control 13, 287–293 (2002).
Inoue, M. et al. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of cancer: results from a large-scale population-based cohort study in Japan. Arch. Intern. Med. 166, 1871–1877 (2009).
Vajdic, C. M. et al. Cancer incidence before and after kidney transplantation. JAMA 296, 2823–2831 (2006).
Stewart, J. H. et al. The pattern of excess cancer in dialysis and transplantation. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 24, 3225–3231 (2009).
Klatte, T. et al. Features and outcomes of renal cell carcinoma of native kidneys in renal transplant recipients. BJU Int. doi:10.1111/j.1464–410X.2009.08941.x.
Bonsib, S. M. Renal cystic diseases and renal neoplasms: a mini-review. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 4, 1998–2007 (2009).
Bassal, M. et al. Risk of selected subsequent carcinomas in survivors of childhood cancer: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. J. Clin. Oncol. 24, 476–483 (2006).
Wiklund, F. et al. Risk of bilateral renal cell cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 27, 3737–3741 (2009).
Lambe, M. et al. Pregnancy and risk of renal cell cancer: a population-based study in Sweden. Br. J. Cancer 86, 1425–1429 (2002).
Kabat, G. C. et al. A cohort study of reproductive and hormonal factors and renal cell cancer risk in women. Br. J. Cancer 96, 845–849 (2007).
Molokwu, J. C., Prizment, A. E. & Folsom, A. R. Reproductive characteristics and risk of kidney cancer: Iowa Women's Health Study. Maturitas 58, 156–163 (2007).
Lee, J. E., Hankinson, S. E. & Cho, E. Reproductive factors and risk of renal cell cancer: The Nurses' Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 169, 1243–1250 (2009).
Setiawan, V. W., Kolonel, L. N. & Henderson, B. E. Menstrual and reproductive factors and risk of renal cell cancer in the Multiethnic Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18, 337–340 (2009).
McTiernan, A. Mechanisms linking physical activity with cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 8, 205–211 (2008).
van Dijk, B. A. et al. Relation of height, body mass, energy intake, and physical activity to risk of renal cell carcinoma: results from the Netherlands Cohort Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 160, 1159–1167 (2004).
Mahabir, S. et al. Physical activity and renal cell cancer risk in a cohort of male smokers. Int. J. Cancer 108, 600–605 (2004).
Moore, S. C. et al. Physical activity during adulthood and adolescence in relation to renal cell cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 168, 149–157 (2008).
Richardson, C. R. et al. A meta-analysis of pedometer-based walking interventions and weight loss. Ann. Fam. Med. 6, 69–77 (2008).
Pialoux, V., Brown, A. D., Leigh, R., Friedenreich, C. M. & Poulin, M. J. Effect of cardiorespiratory fitness on vascular regulation and oxidative stress in postmenopausal women. Hypertension 54, 1014–1020 (2009).
Solomon, T. P. J. et al. Randomized trial on the effects of a 7-d low-glycemic diet and exercise intervention on insulin resistance in older obese humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90, 1222–1229 (2009).
Lee, J. E. et al. Intakes of fruit, vegetables, and carotenoids and renal cell cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 13 prospective studies. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18, 1730–1739 (2009).
Lee, J. E. et al. Intakes of fruits, vegetables, vitamins A, C, and E, and carotenoids and risk of renal cell cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15, 2445–2452 (2006).
Weikert, S. et al. Fruits and vegetables and renal cell carcinoma: findings from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Int. J. Cancer 118, 8133–8139 (2006).
van Dijk, B. A. et al. Carotenoid and vitamin intake, von Hippel–Lindau gene mutations and sporadic renal cell carcinoma. Cancer Causes Control 19, 125–134 (2008).
Bertoia, M. et al. No association between fruit, vegetables, antioxidant nutrients and risk of renal cell carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 126, 1504–1512 (2010).
Lee, J. E. et al. Fat, protein, and meat consumption and renal cell cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 13 prospective studies. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 100, 1695–1706 (2008).
Allen, N. E. et al. A prospective analysis of the association between macronutrient intake and renal cell carcinoma in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int. J. Cancer 125, 982–987 (2009).
Alexander, D. D. & Cushing, C. A. Quantitative assessment of red meat or processed meat consumption and kidney cancer. Cancer Detect. Prev. 32, 340–351 (2009).
Prentice, R. L. et al. Biomarker-calibrated energy and protein consumption and increased cancer risk among postmenopausal women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 169, 977–989 (2009).
IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some industrial chemicals. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 60 (1994).
Törnqvist, M. Acrylamide in food: the discovery and its implications: a historical perspective. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 561, 1–19 (2005).
Mucci, L. A. & Adami, H. O. The plight of the potato: Is dietary acrylamide a risk factor for human cancer? J. Natl Cancer Inst. 101, 618–621 (2009).
Mucci, L. A., Dickman, P. W., Steineck, G., Adami, H.-O. & Augustsson, K. Dietary acrylamide and cancer of the large bowel, kidney, and bladder: absence of an association in a population-based study in Sweden. Br. J. Cancer 88, 84–89 (2003).
Mucci, L. A., Lindblad, P., Steineck, G. & Adami, H.-O. Dietary acrylamide and risk of renal cell cancer. Int. J. Cancer 109, 774–776 (2004).
Hogervorst, J. G., Schouten, L. J., Konings, E. J., Goldbohm, R. A. & van den Brandt, P. A. Dietary acrylamide intake and the risk of renal cell, bladder, and prostate cancer. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87, 1428–1438 (2008).
Lee, J. E. et al. Alcohol intake and renal cell cancer in a pooled analysis of 12 prospective studies. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 99, 801–810 (2007).
Lee, J. E. et al. Intakes of coffee, tea, milk, soda and juice and renal cell cancer in a pooled analysis of 13 prospective studies. Int. J. Cancer 121, 2246–2253 (2007).
IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Dry cleaning, some chlorinated solvents and other industrial chemicals. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 63 (1995).
Chiu, W. A., Caldwell, J. C., Keshava, N. & Scott, C. S. Key scientific issues in the health risk assessment of trichloroethylene. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 1445–1449 (2006).
Scott, C. S. & Chiu, W. A. Trichloroethylene cancer epidemiology: a consideration of select issues. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 1471–1478 (2006).
Kelsh, M. A., Alexander, D. D., Mink, P. J. & Mandel, J. H. Occupational trichloroethylene exposure and kidney cancer: a meta-analysis. Epidemiology 21, 95–102 (2010).
Caldwell, J. C., Keshava, N. & Evans, M. V. Difficulty of mode of action determination for trichloroethylene: an example of complex interactions of metabolites and other chemical exposures. Environ. Mol. Mutag. 49, 142–154 (2008).
Hu, H. et al. The relationship of bone and blood lead to hypertension. The Normative Aging Study. JAMA 275, 1171–1176 (1996).
Tellez-Plaza, M., Navas-Acien, A., Crainiceanu, C. M. & Guallar, E. Cadmium exposure and hypertension in the 1999–2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 51–56 (2008).
Huang, M. et al. Risk assessment of low-level cadmium and arsenic on the kidney. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 72, 1493–1498 (2009).
Navas-Acien, A. et al. Blood cadmium and lead and chronic kidney disease in US adults: a joint analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 170, 1156–1164 (2009).
Kaelin, W. G. Jr. von Hippel–Lindau disease. Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 2, 145–173 (2007).
Clague, J. et al. Family history and risk of renal cell carcinoma: results from a case-control study and systematic meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18, 801–807 (2009).
Shiao, Y.-H. Genetic signature for human risk assessment: lessons from trichloroethylene. Environ. Mol. Mutag. 50, 68–77 (2009).
Brauch, H. et al. Trichloroethylene exposure and sporadic somatic mutations in patients with renal cell carcinoma. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 91, 854–861 (1999).
Charbotel, B. et al. Trichloroethylene exposure and somatic mutations of the VHL gene in patients with renal cell carcinoma. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. 2, 13–19 (2007).
Nickerson, M. L. et al. Improved identification of von Hippel–Lindau gene alterations in clear cell renal tumors. Clin. Cancer Res. 14, 4726–4734 (2008).
Chen, M. et al. Genome-wide profiling of chromosomal alterations in renal cell carcinoma using high-density single nucleotide polymorphism arrays. Int. J. Cancer 125, 2342–2348 (2009).
Wu, X. et al. Telomere dysfunction: a potential cancer predisposition factor. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95, 1211–1218 (2003).
Xing, J. et al. Mitochondrial DNA content: its genetic heritability and association with renal cell carcinoma. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 100, 1104–1112 (2008).
Simic, T., Savic-Radojevic, A., Pljesa-Ercegovac, M., Matic, M. & Mimic-Oka, J. Glutathione S-transferases in kidney and urinary bladder tumors. Nat. Rev. Urol. 6, 281–289 (2009).
Semenza, J. C. et al. Gene–environment interactions in renal cell carcinoma. Am. J. Epidemiol. 153, 851–859 (2001).
García-Closas, M. et al. NAT2 slow acetylation, GSTM1 null genotype, and risk of bladder cancer: results from the Spanish Bladder Cancer Study and meta-analyses. Lancet 366, 649–659 (2005).
Bouillon, R. et al. Vitamin D and cancer. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 102, 156–162 (2006).
Valdivielso, J. M. & Fernandez, E. Vitamin D receptor polymorphisms and diseases. Clin. Chim. Acta 371, 1–12 (2006).
Karami, S. et al. Analysis of SNPs and haplotypes in vitamin D pathway genes and renal cancer risk. PLoS ONE 4, e7013 (2009).
Moore, L. E. et al. Apolipoprotein E/C1 locus variants modify renal cell carcinoma risk. Cancer Res. 69, 8001–8008 (2009).
Andreotti, G. et al. Variants in blood pressure genes and the risk of renal cell carcinoma. Carcinogenesis doi:10.1093/carcin/bgp321.
Dong, L. M. et al. An analysis of growth, differentiation and apoptosis genes with risk of renal cancer. PLoS ONE 4, e4895 (2009).
Acknowledgements
The authors express their appreciation to the cancer registries contributing data to the IARC Cancer Incidence in Five Continents and the NCI Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program, and to the dedicated program staff of the IARC and NCI. They also thank David Check of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, NCI for figure preparation using tabulated data generated from NCI's SEER and IARC's Cancer Incidence in Five Continents series. This Review was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chow, WH., Dong, L. & Devesa, S. Epidemiology and risk factors for kidney cancer. Nat Rev Urol 7, 245–257 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2010.46
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2010.46
This article is cited by
-
The 15-year national trends of urinary cancers incidence among Iranian men and women; 2005–2020
International Journal for Equity in Health (2024)
-
Sarcoid-like reaction and hypothyroidism induced by PD-1 inhibitor treatment in metastatic renal cell carcinoma: a case report and literature review
BMC Pulmonary Medicine (2024)
-
Risk of bladder, kidney and prostate cancer from occupational exposure to welding fumes: a systematic review and meta-analysis
International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health (2024)
-
Second malignant tumors and non-tumor causes of death for patients with localized and regional kidney cancer after diagnosis
European Journal of Medical Research (2023)
-
Cuproptosis related gene PDHB is identified as a biomarker inversely associated with the progression of clear cell renal cell carcinoma
BMC Cancer (2023)