Reviews & Analysis

The cytoskeleton is important for both cell structure and cell function. In this Review, the authors summarize the emerging roles of cytoskeletal components in sensing and eliminating bacterial pathogens from host cells.

T cell differentiation and metabolism are intimately linked. This article describes how T cell receptor-induced transcription factors cooperate with canonical nutrient-sensing pathways to integrate antigen-specific and metabolic signals and appropriately modulate adaptive immune responses.

The enormous potential offered by chromatin profiling to reveal the past, present and future activity of a cell, as well as its ability to respond to the tissue environment, warrants the widespread use of this technique in immunological research.

This Review provides an insightful discussion on the current concepts in multiple sclerosis research, including genetic predisposition and environmental triggers, and explores the evolving link between inflammation and neurodegeneration. The authors highlight the clinical challenges and key questions that remain to be addressed.

Exhausted T cells display a phenotype characterized by progressive loss of function, and they can develop following exposure to persistent antigen and/or inflammatory signals during chronic viral infections or cancer. The authors describe the molecular mechanisms of T cell exhaustion and how the exhausted phenotype is different from other dysfunctional states of T cells.

Mammalian hosts have evolved a range of mechanisms that limit the ability of microorganisms to obtain iron and therefore to survive. Here, the authors describe the role of iron in infection and how iron homeostasis is altered as a consequence of nutritional immunity.

This Review details our current understanding of the biology of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). The authors describe the mechanisms controlling the development and functions of pDCs and discuss their roles in infection, inflammatory disease and cancer.

Eicosanoids are bioactive signalling lipids that regulate numerous homeostatic and inflammatory processes. Here, the authors review our current understanding of cellular eicosanoid metabolism and the physiological functions of pro-inflammatory and pro-resolving eicosanoids in infection and inflammation.

InvasiveSalmonelladisease is severe and represents a major public health problem worldwide. In this Review, the authors summarize our current understanding of host immunity to Salmonella and compare host genetic data from human and mouse studies.

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are emerging as key regulators of the immune system, with different ILC subsets showing distinct immunological properties. This Review describes the transcriptional mechanisms that regulate the development and function of the different ILC subsets. The authors also discuss the evolving ILC nomenclature.

Although they are better known for their roles in antibody responses, B cells also contribute to immunity by secreting cytokines. Here, the authors discuss the various ways in which B cells can shape the immune response during infection and inflammatory disease by producing both pro-inflammatory and immunosuppressive cytokines.

This Review describes the type I interferonopathies — a set of Mendelian disorders associated with the upregulation of type I interferon activity. The authors explain how defects in key components of innate immune signalling pathways can lead to these diseases and discuss the immunological insights that have resulted from their study.

Type I interferons (IFNs) are best known for their role in antiviral immunity. As discussed in this Review, recent evidence indicates that these cytokines also have an integral role in natural and therapy-induced anticancer immunity. Harnessing the antineoplastic properties of type I IFNs may lead to the development of ever-more effective anticancer therapies.

In this Review, the authors describe how tumour necrosis factor (TNF) signals via its receptors. They explain how TNF is able to promote cell survival or cell death in different contexts and discuss the consequences of deregulated TNF receptor signalling for chronic human diseases. Finally, they discuss new strategies for targeting TNF in the clinic.

Fibroblastic reticular cells — which are immunologically specialized myofibroblasts of mesenchymal origin — create a network within lymph nodes that is essential for immunological health through interactions with B cells, T cells, dendritic cells and high endothelial venules.

Cytotoxic lymphocytes recognize virus-infected and transformed cells and kill them by apoptosis. Recent studies on the structural and cellular biology of the key mediators of this cytotoxicity — perforin and granzymes — have advanced our understanding of their mechanisms of action, their regulation and the pathophysiological consequences of impaired cytotoxicity.

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are produced by bacteria and can interact with leukocytes and other host cells to shape the immune response during infection. OMVs can have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects; in this Review, the authors discuss how they may contribute to human diseases and also their potential as vaccine adjuvants.

This Review considers the impact of host temperature on the immune system. In particular, the authors focus on how the thermal element of the fever response can shape both innate and adaptive immune responses.

Accumulating evidence indicates that the food we eat can influence the development of allergic diseases. In this Review, the authors describe the role of both maternal and early childhood food exposure in the prevention of allergy and asthma, and they discuss some of the known dietary components that influence immune homeostasis and the development of allergy.

The dominant role of interleukin-2 (IL-2) is in the maintenance of regulatory T cells rather than of effector T cells. This has led to clinical interest in the use of low-dose IL-2 to control autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, with promising initial results.