Primers and PrimeViews in 2016

Aortic dissection is a medical emergency that occurs when the layers of the aortic wall are forced apart by bleeding, creating a false route of blood flow. Important risk factors for aortic dissection include hypertension and connective tissue disorders.

Measles is an infectious disease caused by the measles virus. In this Primer, Rota et al. cover the pathophysiology and management options, with a focus on the strategies to eliminate endemic transmission of the measles virus by achieving a high level of vaccination coverage

Sjögren syndrome (SjS) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the exocrine glands, resulting in the development of sicca symptoms and systemic disease. In this Primer, the mechanisms as well as the diagnosis and management of SjS are described.

Sepsis is the dysregulated systemic inflammatory and immune response to infection that produces organ injury. Septic shock is characterized by persistent hypotension that substantially increases the risk of death. In this Primer, the authors outline the controversies in sepsis and septic shock, including the complex mechanistic factors and management of critically ill patients.

Uterine fibroids are benign neoplasms of the uterus and are a major source of morbidity in women of reproductive age. In this Primer, Stewart et al. discuss the epidemiology, pathophysiology and management of uterine fibroids, including both surgical and non-surgical therapies.

Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease that can affect many organs, including the skin, joints, the central nervous system and the kidneys. Here, Kaul et al. highlight the heterogeneity of the disease, the management approaches and provide an outlook on the future research directions.

Patients with cirrhosis can develop acute-on-chronic liver failure, a syndrome characterized by acute decompensation, organ failure and high short-term mortality. Arroyo et al. discuss the mechanisms, diagnosis and management of this evolving concept in the field of liver disease.

Disseminated intravascular coagulation can be caused by various infectious and non-infectious insults, such as sepsis and trauma, respectively. It is characterized by the widespread activation of coagulation and, depending on the underlying condition, can manifest as bleeding and/or thrombosis.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a rare inherited disease caused by mutations in the tumour-suppressor genes TSC1 or TSC2. As a chronic disease that manifests as benign tumours in the brain, kidneys, lungs and skin, TSC requires lifelong treatment.

Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is characterized by excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone due to a single benign adenoma or multiglandular disease. In this Primer, Bilezikian et al. describe the epidemiology, clinical presentations, genetics, evaluation and guidelines for the management of PHPT.

Meniere's disease is a disorder of the inner ear that causes vertigo attacks, fluctuating hearing loss, tinnitus and aural fullness. In this Primer, Nakashima et al. give an overview of the complex aetiology, classification systems, diagnostic tools and management strategies.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia, which causes lower urinary tract symptoms, is a common diagnosis among ageing men that is associated with many risks factors, including metabolic syndrome. In this Primer, these risk factors are described, as well diagnostic work-up and treatment options.

Gallstones are masses in the gallbladder or biliary tract. This Primer by Lammert et al. focuses on the formation of gallstones, summarizes the current principles of treatment of the stones and their potential complications and envisions future approaches for this widespread disease.

In 2015, an estimated 367,000 new cases of pancreatic cancer were diagnosed worldwide; this disease is aggressive and patients face a dismal overall prognosis. In this Primer, the current understanding of pathophysiological, molecular, translational and clinical aspects of pancreatic cancer are described.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common form of primary liver cancer and has well-known risk factors, including cirrhosis and viral hepatitis. Here, Llovet and colleagues discuss the challenges and recent advances in HCC molecular characterization, diagnosis and management.

This Primer describes the mechanisms underlying the serious effects of Clostridium difficile infection, which is the leading cause of health-care-associated infective diarrhoea. Strategies for diagnosis, prevention and management are also described, illustrating the burden that C. difficile infection places on patients and society.

Atrial fibrillation occurs when cardiac electrical impulses become disordered, leading to a rapid and irregular heartbeat. Lip and colleagues discuss the mechanisms that underlie this common arrhythmia and outline current strategies and potential future developments for its diagnosis and management.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disease with a high prevalence. Enck et al. describe the association between IBS and other gastrointestinal, somatic and psychiatric conditions, as well as the current view on the pathophysiology, and diagnostic and management options.

Diabetic retinopathy is a common microvascular complication of diabetes and is a major cause of vision loss in middle-aged and elderly people. In this Primer, Wong et al. discuss the epidemiology, underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, classification and diagnosis and treatment options of this condition.

Acute myeloid leukaemia is characterized by clonal proliferation of haematopoietic stem cells or progenitor cells, leading to fewer differentiated red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells. The disease presents with a rapid onset and may be fatal in weeks or months if left untreated.