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A 12.4-day periodicity in a close binary system after a supernova

Nature volume 625, pages 253–258 (2024)Cite this article

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Abstract

Neutron stars and stellar-mass black holes are the remnants of massive star explosions1. Most massive stars reside in close binary systems2, and the interplay between the companion star and the newly formed compact object has been theoretically explored3, but signatures for binarity or evidence for the formation of a compact object during a supernova explosion are still lacking. Here we report a stripped-envelope supernova, SN 2022jli, which shows 12.4-day periodic undulations during the declining light curve. Narrow Hα emission is detected in late-time spectra with concordant periodic velocity shifts, probably arising from hydrogen gas stripped from a companion and accreted onto the compact remnant. A new Fermi-LAT γ-ray source is temporally and positionally consistent with SN 2022jli. The observed properties of SN 2022jli, including periodic undulations in the optical light curve, coherent Hα emission shifting and evidence for association with a γ-ray source, point to the explosion of a massive star in a binary system leaving behind a bound compact remnant. Mass accretion from the companion star onto the compact object powers the light curve of the supernova and generates the γ-ray emission.

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Fig. 1: Multiband light curves of SN 2022jli showing periodic undulations.
Fig. 2: Multiband periodogram and the undulation profile of SN 2022jli.
Fig. 3: The spectral evolution of SN 2022jli between +139 days and +280 days after discovery.
Fig. 4: The pseudo-bolometric light curve and multi-frequency data of SN 2022jli.

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Data availability

Photometry and spectroscopy of SN 2022jli will be made available at the WISeREP public database. Facilities that make all their data available in public archives promptly or after a proprietary period include Palomar 48-inch/ZTF, VLT/X-shooter, NuSTAR, Chandra X-ray Observatory and Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope. Data from the ATLAS, Gaia, ASAS-SN and KKO were obtained from public sources. The data used to perform the analysis and produce the figures for this paper are available at a public GitHub repository (https://github.com/AtomyChan/SN2022jli).

Code availability

The codes used to perform the analysis and produce the figures for this paper are available at a public GitHub repository (https://github.com/AtomyChan/SN2022jli).

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Acknowledgements

We thank B. Cenko, Y. Levin, E. Pian, S. Dong, D. Lai, O. Yaron, J. Morag, Y. S. Rimalt and T. Shenar for the discussions. We thank D. J. Thompson for his comments. P.C. and A.G.-Y. thank Y. Beletsky for his assistance with Magellan telescope remote observations. This research has made use of the NuSTAR Data Analysis Software (NuSTARDAS) jointly developed by the ASI Space Science Data Center (SSDC) and the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). SED Machine is based on the work supported by the National Science Foundation under grant no. 1106171. This study is based on observations obtained with the 48-inch Samuel Oschin Telescope and the 60-inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) project. ZTF is supported by the National Science Foundation under grant no. AST-2034437 and a collaboration that includes Caltech, IPAC, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the Oskar Klein Center at Stockholm University, the University of Maryland, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron and Humboldt University, the TANGO Consortium of Taiwan, the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, Trinity College Dublin, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories, IN2P3, University of Warwick, Ruhr University Bochum and Northwestern University. Operations were conducted by COO, IPAC and the University of Wisconsin. The Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, through both the Data-Driven Investigator Program and a dedicated grant, provided funding for SkyPortal. This work has used data from the ATLAS project. The ATLAS project is primarily funded to search for near-earth asteroids through NASA grant nos NN12AR55G, 80NSSC18K0284 and 80NSSC18K1575; by-products of the NEO search include images and catalogues from the survey area. This work was partially funded by the Kepler/K2 grant J1944/80NSSC19K0112 and HST GO-15889 and STFC grants ST/T000198/1 and ST/S006109/1. The ATLAS science products have been made possible through the contributions of the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the South African Astronomical Observatory and the Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS), Chile. This study is based on the observations made with the NOT, owned in collaboration with the University of Turku and Aarhus University and operated jointly by Aarhus University, the University of Turku and the University of Oslo, representing Denmark, Finland and Norway, respectively, the University of Iceland and Stockholm University at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. One of the spectra from NOT was obtained as part of an NBI school in which M. Killi, N. Allen, K. Gould and D. Zhou participated under the leadership of J. Fynbo. This work was supported by the research project grant Understanding the Dynamic Universe funded by the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation under Dnr KAW 2018.0067. The study is based on the observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programme 110.25A6. The access for MMT Observatory for part of the MMT/Binospec data was supported by Northwestern University and the Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA). Mephisto is developed at and operated by the South-Western Institute for Astronomy Research of Yunnan University (SWIFAR-YNU), funded by the Yunnan University Development Plan for World-Class University and Yunnan University Development Plan for World-Class Astronomy Discipline. The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the ATNF, which is funded by the Australian government for the operation as a national facility managed by the CSIRO. We acknowledge the Gomeroi people as the Traditional Owners of the Observatory site. The Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN) is funded by the Danish National Research Foundation under grant no. 140. S. Schulze acknowledges support from the G.R.E.A.T. research environment, funded by Vetenskapsrådet, the Swedish Research Council, project no. 2016-06012. B.Z. is supported by a research grant from the Willner Family Leadership Institute for the Weizmann Institute of Science, a research grant from the Center for New Scientists at the Weizmann Institute of Science and a research grant from the Ruth and Herman Albert Scholarship Program for New Scientists. A.H. acknowledges the support from the I-Core Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Israel Science Foundation (ISF) and support from the ISF grant no. 647/18. This research was supported by grant no. 2018154 from the United States–Israel Binational Science Foundation (BSF). A.H. is especially grateful to the Sir Zelman Cowen Academic Initiatives for their funding and support. D.L., Xiangkun Liu, Y.F. and Xiaowei Liu acknowledge the support from special grants to the Yunnan Technology Leading Talents and Provincial Innovation Team. D.L., Xiangkun Liu, Y.F. and Xiaowei Liu also acknowledge supports from the Science and Technology Champion Project (202005AB160002) and from two team projects—the Innovation Team (202105AE160021) and the Top Team (202305AT350002)—all funded by the Yunnan Revitalization Talent Support Program. J.P.U.F. is supported by the Independent Research Fund Denmark (DFF-4090-00079) and thanks the Carlsberg Foundation for support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel

    Ping Chen, Avishay Gal-Yam, Eran O. Ofek, Boaz Katz, Doron Kushnir, Eli Waxman, Barak Zackay, Ido Irani, Amir Sharon & Nora L. Strotjohann

  2. The Oskar Klein Centre, Department of Astronomy, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

    Jesper Sollerman & Sheng Yang

  3. The Oskar Klein Centre, Department of Physics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

    Steve Schulze

  4. Post Observatory, Lexington, MA, USA

    Richard S. Post

  5. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

    Chang Liu & Adam A. Miller

  6. Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

    Chang Liu & Adam A. Miller

  7. Cahill Center for Astrophysics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

    Kaustav K. Das, Mansi M. Kasliwal, Shri R. Kulkarni & Yuhan Yao

  8. Caltech Optical Observatories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

    Christoffer Fremling, Richard Dekany, Reed L. Riddle & Lin Yan

  9. Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

    Christoffer Fremling, Andrew J. Drake, Theophile Jegou du Laz, James D. Neill & Yu-Jing Qin

  10. Racah Institute of Physics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

    Assaf Horesh

  11. South-Western Institute for Astronomy Research, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People’s Republic of China

    Dezi Liu, Xiangkun Liu, Yuan Fang & Xiaowei Liu

  12. Sydney Institute for Astronomy, School of Physics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Kovi Rose

  13. Henan Academy of Sciences, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China

    Sheng Yang

  14. DIRAC Institute, Department of Astronomy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

    Eric C. Bellm

  15. The Cosmic DAWN Center, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Johan P. U. Fynbo

  16. Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Johan P. U. Fynbo

  17. IPAC, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

    Steven L. Groom, George Helou & Avery Wold

  18. Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

    Paolo A. Mazzali

  19. Max-Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Garching, Germany

    Paolo A. Mazzali

Authors
  1. Ping Chen
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  2. Avishay Gal-Yam
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  3. Jesper Sollerman
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  4. Steve Schulze
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  5. Richard S. Post
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  6. Chang Liu
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  7. Eran O. Ofek
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  8. Kaustav K. Das
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  9. Christoffer Fremling
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  10. Assaf Horesh
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  11. Boaz Katz
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  12. Doron Kushnir
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  13. Mansi M. Kasliwal
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  14. Shri R. Kulkarni
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  15. Dezi Liu
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  16. Xiangkun Liu
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  17. Adam A. Miller
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  18. Kovi Rose
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  19. Eli Waxman
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  20. Sheng Yang
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  21. Yuhan Yao
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  22. Barak Zackay
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  23. Eric C. Bellm
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  24. Richard Dekany
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  25. Andrew J. Drake
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  26. Yuan Fang
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  27. Johan P. U. Fynbo
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  28. Steven L. Groom
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  29. George Helou
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  30. Ido Irani
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  31. Theophile Jegou du Laz
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  32. Xiaowei Liu
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  33. Paolo A. Mazzali
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  34. James D. Neill
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  35. Yu-Jing Qin
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  36. Reed L. Riddle
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  37. Amir Sharon
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  38. Nora L. Strotjohann
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  39. Avery Wold
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  40. Lin Yan
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Contributions

All authors reviewed the paper and contributed to the interpretation and/or data acquisition. P.C. led the studies. P.C. discovered the periodicity and the γ-ray detection, organized the follow-up observations, conducted X-ray and most optical data acquisition, conducted most of the data reduction, performed the data analysis and wrote most of the paper, including creating all the figures. A.G.-Y. contributed to the follow-up data (including observations performed with MMT/BINOSPEC, Magellan/FIRE, Magellan/FIRE, VLT/X-shooter, NuSTAR, Chandra and ATCA) and to the interpretation, wrote the paper and thoroughly reviewed it. J.S. initiated the study, obtained the spectra with SEDM and NOT, helped in developing the ideas in the paper, wrote the paper and thoroughly reviewed it. S.S. contributed to the follow-up observations with NOT and reduced the NOT spectra. R.S.P. performed the follow-up observations with the 0.8-m RC32 telescope at Post Observatory. C.L. contributed to one MMT/Binospec spectrum, reduced the Magellan/FIRE echelle spectra and contributed to the interpretation. E.O.O. contributed to the follow-up observations with NuSTAR. B.K., D.K., E.O.O., E.W. and B.Z. contributed to the interpretation and especially suggested the analysis of Fermi-LAT data. D.L. performed the Mephisto photometry. Xiangkun Liu organized the Mephisto observations. A.H. and K.R. performed the ATCA radio observation and data reduction. K.K.D., Y.Y., M.M.K. and S.R.K. contributed to the P200/DBSP spectra. C.F. contributed to the SEDM photometry. A.A.M. contributed to one MMT/BINOSPEC spectrum. S.Y. contributed to the analysis of light curves with the nickel decay model. J.P.U.F. obtained a spectrum from the NOT. S.R.K., A.J.D., J.D.N., E.C.B., S.L.G., A.W., T.J.d.L., R.L.R., G.H. and R.D. are the ZTF builders. D.L., Xiaowei Liu, Xiangkun Liu and Y.F. contributed to the observation and reduction of Mephisto data. I.I., A.S., N.L.S., P.A.M. and L.Y. contributed to the interpretation. Y.-J.Q. contributed to the observation of DBSP spectra.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ping Chen.

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Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Naturethanks Ferinando Patat and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.Peer reviewer reports are available.

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended Data Fig. 1 SN 2022jli and the host galaxy NGC 157.

The background image shows the three-color (Y, H, K bands) image of NGC 157 taken before the supernova explosion with the HAWK-I instrument on ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) at the Paranal Observatory in Chile (Credit: ESO). The red plus symbol in the figure indicates the position of SN 2022jli. Inset panels: a, zoom-in view around SN 2022jli showing the nearby environment in NIR; b, zoom-in view around SN 2022jli on an r-band image taken with Magellan/IMACS on 2022 December 15; c, Na I absorption lines from the host galaxy; d, the narrow diffuse interstellar band absorption (DIB6283) from the host galaxy. a,b, Share the same field of view size. c,d, The red spectrum shows the averaged spectrum of three X-Shooter spectra and one IMACS spectrum, whereas the individual spectra are shown in grey in the background.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Spectral evolution and comparison of SN 2022jli.

a, Photospheric spectra of SN 2022jli. The +6d spectrum and the +19d spectrum are shown in black and red, respectively. The identified absorption lines of Fe II, O I, and Ca II are indicated with the arrows. A blue-shifted velocity of 8, 200 km s−1 has been applied to all the lines. b, The +19d spectrum of SN 2022jli compared with photospheric spectra of other SNe. The comparison objects include: normal SNe Ic (SN 2004gk178, SN 2007gr179), SN Ib/c (SN 2013ge106), “Hypernovae” (SN 1997dq 12,13,180), Hydrogen-poor SLSNe (SN 2015bn5,181), and other long-lasting peculiar SESNe (SN 2012au14, iPTF15dtg15). c, Late-time spectra of SN 2022jli and other comparison SNe. The comparison objects are the same as in b except that we have added another Hydrogen-poor SLSN SN 2007bi11. The vertical dashed lines mark the wavelength of Hα and Hβ.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Periodicity analysis of light curves in the individual bands.

Left: the Lomb-Scargle power spectrum of the light curve (blue) and the observation window function (yellow). The zoom-in panel shows the region of interest around the true periodic signal. The horizontal lines indicate the false alarm probability (FAP) levels of 10−3, 10−6, and 10−9 from bottom to top. Right: the phase-folded subtracted and normalized light curve. The period adopted for the folding corresponds to the peak power in the zoom-in panel on the left.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Optical and NIR spectra of SN 2022jli around +210 days after discovery (optical spectrum taken with NOT/ALFOSC on 2022 November 25 and NIR spectrum taken with Magellan/FIRE on 2022 December 15).

The NIR spectrum has been scaled to match the flux of the optical spectrum in the overlapping region. The prominent features and the corresponding ions (or molecules) that likely contributed to the emission lines are marked. The spectrum in blue shows the mock spectrum of Fe II, Fe III and Ni II emission, and the vertical lines indicate emission from individual transitions which give relatively strong emission. The absolute strength of the mock spectrum is arbitrary, and the relative strength between different transitions for the same ion was calculated for a temperature of 104 K, and an electron density of 107cm−3.

Extended Data Fig. 5 Spectral evolution of SN 2022jli before and during the fast decline phase of the light curve.

The top left panel shows the bolometric light curve, and the top right panel shows the zoom-in view of the fast decline phase of the light curve. The second panel shows the six epochs of spectra as indicated in the top right panel. The bottom three panels show the zoom-in view of the spectra within different wavelength ranges. All spectra in the bottom three panels have been scaled to have the same integrated luminosity between 3800 to 9000 Å as the BINOSPEC spectrum taken on 12 January 2022.

Extended Data Fig. 6 Pseudo-bolometric light curve of SN 2022jli.

a, The points show the pseudo-bolometric light curve from 3750 Å to 25000 Å. These data points share the same colours with the other panels to indicate different phases. The black shows the gradual decline phase during which the constant relative undulation is detected. The last bump before the fast-declining phase is shown in blue, and the fast-declining phase is shown in cyan. The magenta line shows the radioactive decay model with 0.15 M⊙ 56Ni. b, Zoom-in view of the accretion-powered pseudo-bolometric light curve, \({L}_{accretion}={L}_{UVOIR}-{L}_{{}^{56}Ni}\), before and during the fast-declining phase. The black solid line shows the linear fit to data between 200 and 260 days after JD = 2,459,700. The red solid line shows the best-fit undulation model to the data, while the red dashed line shows the extrapolation of the undulation model if the SN follows the previous undulations. The vertical green lines mark the 12.4-day periods with the left three lines at the minima of the undulation profiles. c, The undulation profiles of the gradual-declining phase and the last bump. d, The relative undulation of the accretion-powered pseudo-bolometric light curve. The red line shows the empirical undulation model adopting the same empirical undulation profile as in c.

Extended Data Fig. 7 Detection and light curve of the new γ-ray source.

The top panels show the Test Statistic (TS) map of the region of interest in the direction of SN 2022jli. a, The result of data observed from 1 May 2022 to 1 March 2023 in the broad energy band (100 MeV – 300 GeV). b, The result of data observed from 1 November 2022 to 1 January 2023 in the narrow energy band (1 – 3 GeV). The sources from the 4FGL-DR3 catalogue shown with blue plus symbols have been modelled and subtracted from the map. The bottom panels show the γ-ray light curves of the detected source at the position of SN 2022jli with a bin size of 2 months. c, The energy range of 100 MeV to 300 GeV. d, The energy range of 1 GeV to 3 GeV. The black points show the measured energy flux from the likelihood modelling with the Fermi-LAT analysis tool. The blue lines give the upper limit of energy flux within a 95% confidence interval. The red histograms show the Test Statistics values on the right axis. The horizontal dashed red line marks TS=9. The vertical yellow lines mark the discovery time of SN 2022jli.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Localization and potential periodicity of the new γ-ray source.

a, The background mosaic grey pixels show the count map of 1 – 3 GeV photons detected between 1 November 2022 and 1 January 2023. The pixel size is 0.125° × 0.125°. The yellow plus symbol shows the best-localized position of the new γ-ray source, and the surrounding yellow contours show the corresponding 68%, 95%, and 99% confidence area. SN 2022jli, the red plus symbol, is within the 68% uncertainty region of the detected γ-ray source. The blazar candidate NVSS J003456-082820 is shown with the blue plus symbol and is within the 95% uncertainty region of the new γ-ray source. In the central 1.625° × 1.625° field, there is one detected γ-ray source from the LAT 12-year Source Catalog (4FGL-DR3), 4FGL J0035.8-0837. The black circle has a radius of 0.4° corresponding roughly to the 50% containment radius of the averaged PSF over the energy range between 1 GeV and 3 GeV. b, The distribution of 1 – 3 GeV photons of the new γ-ray source. The top panel shows the photon energy and detection time. The bottom panel shows the distribution after folding the light curve with a period of 12.4 days. The reference time (phase=0) corresponds to the minimum of the optical undulation profile. Most of the γ-ray photons come from the rising phase of the optical bump. The 11 photons are within the half-containment radius shown in a. c, The cumulative distribution of the maximum separation between any two photons that would be achieved by drawing N photons randomly distributed in a time range of 120 days.

Extended Data Fig. 9 Light curve of SN 2022jli compared with those of other supernovae.

a, Comparison with Type Ic supernovae dominantly powered by radioactive decay showing clear exponential decay tails. All the comparison supernovae have been shifted to have a peak at 14th magnitude. The inset panel shows a zoom-in view around the peak light. b, Comparison with the long-lasting SN 2012au (SN Ib), and other supernovae with double-peaked light curves.

Extended Data Fig. 10 Evolution of the accretion-powered Hα emission.

a, The line luminosity of the Hα emission compared with the pseudo-bolometric luminosity. b, The velocity of the Hα emission. The data points share the same colour as in a, indicating the phase of the corresponding spectrum. The lines show the orbital velocity model with specific orbital parameters in the legend. An edge-on view (inclination angle i = 90 degrees) is adopted for all models. The orbital parameters include compact remnant mass mc, companion star mass m2, and orbital eccentricity e. The errorbars are 1σ confidence intervals.

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Chen, P., Gal-Yam, A., Sollerman, J. et al. A 12.4-day periodicity in a close binary system after a supernova. Nature 625, 253–258 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06787-x

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