Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Analysis
  • Published:

Assessing the economic viability of unconventional rare earth element feedstocks

Nature Sustainability volume 6, pages 1103–1112 (2023)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Sourcing rare earth elements (REEs) from unconventional feedstocks has substantial environmental and societal–economic benefits, but its economic viability remains unclear. Here we propose a framework for assessing the economic viability of unconventional REE feedstocks. We first develop a database of capital and operating expenses for REE recovery and establish consistent process unit costs for common stages in the conventional supply chain. We then use market prices to develop well-defined methods for determining diverse product values. Finally, we report the effects of economies of scale and feedstock purity on capital and operating costs. These tools can reduce uncertainty in the assessment of the economic viability of producing REEs from unconventional feedstocks, determine the value of innovative pathways for REE production from diverse sources and inform research priorities across a wide range of REE product development stages, contributing to a sustainable REE supply.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Critical needs for processing unconventional REE ores.
Fig. 2: Costs of conventional ore processing and extraction and standardized refining processes.
Fig. 3: Trends in element normalized product price by ranked product application value.
Fig. 4: Cost as a function of capacity and feedstock purity.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published Analysis (and its Supplementary Information). Information included in this published Analysis includes the Excel operating and capital expense database for REE extraction (Supplementary Data). Source data are provided with this paper.

References

  1. Binnemans, K. et al. Recycling of rare earths: a critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 51, 1–22 (2013).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Critical Materials Strategy (US Department of Energy, 2011); https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/DOE_CMS2011_FINAL_Full.pdf

  3. Balaram, V. Rare earth elements: a review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental impact. Geosci. Front. 10, 1285–1303 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Du, X. & Graedel, T. E. Uncovering the global life cycles of the rare earth elements. Sci. Rep. 1, 145 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Jha, M. K. et al. Review on hydrometallurgical recovery of rare earth metals. Hydrometallurgy 165, 2–26 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Gaustad, G., Williams, E. & Leader, A. Rare earth metals from secondary sources: review of potential supply from waste and byproducts. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 167, 105213 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. DuChanois, R. M. et al. Prospects of metal recovery from wastewater and brine. Nat. Water 1, 37–46 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Vass, C. R., Noble, A. & Ziemkiewicz, P. F. The occurrence and concentration of rare earth elements in acid mine drainage and treatment by-products: part 1—initial survey of the northern Appalachian coal basin. Min. Metall. Explor. 36, 903–916 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Franus, W., Wiatros-Motyka, M. M. & Wdowin, M. Coal fly ash as a resource for rare earth elements. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 22, 9464–9474 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Zimmermann, T. & Gößling-Reisemann, S. Critical materials and dissipative losses: a screening study. Sci. Total Environ. 461–462, 774–780 (2013).

  11. Reck, B. K. & Graedel, T. E. Challenges in metal recycling. Science 337, 690–695 (2012).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Barakos, G. & Mischo, H. Insertion of the social license to operate into the early evaluation of technical and economic aspects of mining projects: experiences from the Norra Kärr and Bokan Dotson rare earth element projects. Extr. Ind. Soc. 8, 100814 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Boutilier, R. G. & Thomson, I. Modelling and Measuring the Social License to Operate: Fruits of a Dialogue between Theory and Practice (Social License, 2011).

  14. Verbaan, N., Bradley, K., Brown, J. & Mackie, S. A review of hydrometallurgical flowsheets considered in current REE projects. In Symposium on Strategic and Critical Materials Proceedings (eds Simandl, G. J. & Neetz, M.) 147–162 (British Columbia Geological Survey, 2015).

  15. Xie, F., Zhang, T. A., Dreisinger, D. & Doyle, F. A critical review on solvent extraction of rare earths from aqueous solutions. Miner. Eng. 56, 10–28 (2014).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Can Sener, S. E. et al. Recovery of critical metals from aqueous sources. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 9, 11616–11634 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Bogner, S. Rare Earth Deposits: A Simple Means of Comparative Evaluation (Rockstone Research Ltd, 2014).

  18. Yang, J. et al. Microanalytical approaches to characterizing REE in Appalachian basin underclays. Minerals 10, 546 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Montross, S. N., Yang, J., Britton, J., McKoy, M. & Verba, C. Leaching of rare earth elements from central Appalachian coal seam underclays. Minerals 10, 577 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Tian, L. et al. Rare earth elements occurrence and economical recovery strategy from shale gas wastewater in the Sichuan Basin, China. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 11914–11920 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Costis, S. et al. Recovery potential of rare earth elements from mining and industrial residues: a review and cases studies. J. Geochem. Explor. 221, 106699 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Taggart, R. K., Hower, J. C., Dwyer, G. S. & Hsu-Kim, H. Trends in the rare earth element content of U.S.-based coal combustion fly ashes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 5919–5926 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Binnemans, K. & Jones, P. T. Rare earths and the balance problem. J. Sustain. Metall. 1, 29–38 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Machacek, E. & Kalvig, P. Assessing advanced rare earth element-bearing deposits for industrial demand in the EU. Resour. Policy 49, 186–203 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Binnemans, K., Jones, P. T., Blanpain, B., Van Gerven, T. & Pontikes, Y. Towards zero-waste valorisation of rare-earth-containing industrial process residues: a critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 99, 17–38 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Carbon Ore, Rare Earth and Critical Minerals (CORE-CM) Initiative for U.S. Basins (FedConnect, 2020); https://www.fedconnect.net/FedConnect/default.aspx?ReturnUrl=%2fFedConnect%2f%3fdoc%3dDE-FOA-0002364%26agency%3dDOE&doc=DE-FOA-0002364&agency=DOE

  27. Wilfong, W. C. et al. Stable immobilized amine sorbents for heavy metal and REE removal from industrial wastewaters. Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol. 6, 1286–1299 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Wang, Q., Wilfong, W. C., Kail, B. W., Yu, Y. & Gray, M. L. Novel polyethylenimine–acrylamide/SiO hybrid hydrogel sorbent for rare-earth-element recycling from aqueous sources. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 5, 10947–10958 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Alternative Technical Economic Model for the Mountain Pass Re-Start Project (SRK Consulting, 2010); https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1489137/000095012310065239/d74323fwfwp.htm

  30. Technical Report on the Eco Ridge Mine Project, Elliot Lake, Ontario, Canada NI 43-101 Report (RPA, 2012).

  31. Preliminary Economic Assessment on the Sarfartoq Rare Earth Element Project, Greenland (Tetra Tech, 2011).

  32. NI 43-101 Technical Report Preliminary Economic Assessment Ashram Rare Earth Deposit for Commerce Resources Corp. (SGS, 2015).

  33. Bear Lodge Project Canadian NI 43-101 Pre-Feasibility Study Report (Roche Engineering, 2014); http://www.rareelementresources.com/App_Themes/NI43-101PreFeasibilityStudyReport/HTML/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf

  34. Yangibana Project (Hastings Technology Metals Limited, 2018); https://hastingstechmetals.com/download/44/2018/2282/50-increase-in-ore-reserves-at-yangibana-project-to-7-74-million-tonnes

  35. Kvanefjeld Project Feasibility Study (Greenland Minerals and Energy Ltd, 2015).

  36. Clay, A. N. et al. National Instrument 43-101: Independent Technical Report on the Results of a Feasibility Study for the Steenkampskraal Rare Earth Element Project in the Western Cape, South Africa for Great Western Minerals Group Ltd (Venmyn Deloitte, 2014).

  37. Nolans Project Definitive Feasibility Study Summary Report (Arafura Resources Limited, 2019).

  38. Feasibility Study for the Kipawa Project (Roche, Geneva, Golder Associates & SGS, 2013).

  39. Harper, F. et al. National Instrument 43-101 Independent Technical Report on the Results of a Preliminary Feasibility Study on the Zandkopsdrift Rare Earth Element and Manganese By-product Project in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa for Frontier Rare Earths Limited (Frontier Rare Earths, 2015); https://frontierrareearths.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/June15-ITR-PFS-Zkd-SEDAR.pdf

  40. Preliminary Economic Assessment: Bokan Mountain Rare Earth Element Project (Tetra Tech, 2013); https://ucore.com/docs/PEA.pdf

  41. Amended & Restated Prefeasibility Study: NI 43-101—Technical Report for the Norra Kärr Rare Earth Element Deposit (GBM, 2015); https://leadingedgematerials.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Norra-Karr_PFS_43-101-.pdf

  42. Technical Report Disclosing the Results of the Feasibility Study on the Nechalacho Rare Earth Elements Project (Micon International Ltd, 2013).

  43. NI 43-101 Preliminary Economic Assessment Round Top Project (Gustavson Associates, 2019); http://tmrcorp.com/_resources/reports/TMRC-NI43-101-PEA-2019-16-August-2019.pdf

  44. Technical Report on the Foxtrot Project, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada NI 43-101 Report (RPA, 2016).

  45. Ni 43-101 Technical Report on the Preliminary Economic Assessment for the Strange Lake Property Quebec, Canada (Micon International Ltd, 2014).

  46. Bauk, G. Browns Range Project Definitive Feasibility Study (Northern Minerals, 2015).

  47. Dodd, D. S., Hannon, P. J. F., Roy, W. D., Siegfried, P. R. & Hall, M. R. Preliminary Economic Assessment on the Lofdal Rare Earths Project Namibia (Namibia Rare Earths Inc., 2014).

  48. Clay, A. N. et al. A Preliminary Economic Assessment in the Form of an Independent Technical Report on MBAC Fertilizer Corp. Araxá Project (Venmyn Rand, 2012).

  49. Independent Preliminary Economic Assessment for the Wicheeda Rare Earth Element Project, British Columbia, Canada (SRK Consulting, 2022).

  50. NI 43-101 Technical Report Preliminary Economic Assessment for Penco Module Project (Ausenco Engineering Chile Limitada, 2021).

  51. NI 43-101 Technical Report Feasibility Study, Elk Creek (NioCorp, 2019).

  52. Rare Earths Statistics and Information (USGS, 2020); https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/rare-earths-statistics-and-information

  53. Metal Prices—Average (Institute for Rare Earths and Metals AG, 2021); https://ise-metal-quotes.com/

  54. Towler, G. P. & Sinnott, R. K. Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design 2nd edn (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2013).

  55. Lin, R. et al. Application of sequential extraction and hydrothermal treatment for characterization and enrichment of rare earth elements from coal fly ash. Fuel 232, 124–133 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Stuckman, M. Y., Lopano, C. L., & Granite, E. J. Distribution and speciation of rare earth elements in coal combustion by-products via synchrotron microscopy and spectroscopy. Int. J. Coal Geol. 195, 125–138 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Bagdonas, D. A. et al. Rare earth element resource evaluation of coal byproducts: a case study from the Powder River Basin, Wyoming. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 158, 112148 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Hedin, B. C. et al. The evaluation of critical rare earth element (REE) enriched treatment solids from coal mine drainage passive treatment systems. Int. J. Coal Geol. 208, 54–64 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Hedin, B. C., Hedin, R. S., Capo, R. C. & Stewart, B. W. Critical metal recovery potential of Appalachian acid mine drainage treatment solids. Int. J. Coal Geol. 231, 103610 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Stewart, B. W., Capo, R. C., Hedin, B. C. & Hedin, R. S. Rare earth element resources in coal mine drainage and treatment precipitates in the Appalachian Basin, USA. Int. J. Coal Geol. 169, 28–39 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Cravotta, C. A. Dissolved metals and associated constituents in abandoned coal-mine discharges, Pennsylvania, USA. Part 1: constituent quantities and correlations. Appl. Geochem. 23, 166–202 (2008).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Alipanah, M. et al. Techno-economic and life cycle assessments for sustainable rare earth recovery from coal byproducts using biosorption. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 17914–17922 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Jin, H. et al. Techno-economic assessment for integrating biosorption into rare earth recovery process. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 5, 10148–10155 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Thompson, V. S. et al. Techno-economic and life cycle analysis for bioleaching rare-earth elements from waste materials. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6, 1602–1609 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Das, S., Gaustad, G., Sekar, A. & Williams, E. Techno-economic analysis of supercritical extraction of rare earth elements from coal ash. J. Clean. Prod. 189, 539–551 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Argumedo, D. et al. Recovery of High Purity Rare Earth Elements (REE) from Coal Ash via a Novel Electrowinning Process: Final Report DOE-Battelle-FE0031529, 1631038 (USDOE Office of Fossil Energy, 2020); https://doi.org/10.2172/1631038

  67. Hendren, Z., Choi, Y. C., Hsu-Kim, H., Hower, J. C. & Wiesner, M. 2017 World of Coal Ash Conference (Univ. Kentucky Center for Applied Energy Research, 2017).

  68. Zhang, W. & Honaker, R. Q. Rare earth elements recovery using staged precipitation from a leachate generated from coarse coal refuse. Int. J. Coal Geol. 195, 189–199 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Weber, L., Leek, T. & Alzubairi, A. An Economic Analysis of the Extraction of Rare Earth Elements from WPPA Sand Tailings Waste Stream (Univ. Tennessee, Knoxville, 2015).

  70. Jin, H. et al. Sustainable bioleaching of rare earth elements from industrial waste materials using agricultural wastes. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 15311–15319 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank W. M. Summers for his effort in reviewing this work. This research was supported by an appointment by the US Department of Energy Post-Graduate Fellowship Program at the National Energy Technology Laboratory administered by the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the US Department of Energy.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Energy Technology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Albany, OR, USA

    Alison G. Fritz

  2. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

    Alison G. Fritz & Meagan S. Mauter

  3. National Energy Technology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

    Thomas J. Tarka

  4. Department of Global Environmental Policy, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

    Meagan S. Mauter

Authors
  1. Alison G. Fritz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thomas J. Tarka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Meagan S. Mauter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

A.G.F. collected the data, developed the methodology, conducted the formal analysis and wrote the original draft of the paper. A.G.F. and M.S.M. visualized the data. T.J.T. and M.S.M. conceptualized the project, reviewed and edited the paper, and supervised the research.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Meagan S. Mauter.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Sustainability thanks Zongguo Wen and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Note 1, Figs. 1 and 2, Tables 1–7 and Equations 1–11.

Reporting Summary

Supplementary Data 1

An Excel database of compiled process costs.

Supplementary Data 2

An Excel sheet with element normalized prices.

Source data

Source Data Figs. 2–4

Input data used to calculate mean costs (Fig. 2), develop the regressions (Fig. 3), and plot project costs and development of regressions (Fig. 4a,b).

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Fritz, A.G., Tarka, T.J. & Mauter, M.S. Assessing the economic viability of unconventional rare earth element feedstocks. Nat Sustain 6, 1103–1112 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01145-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01145-1

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing