Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Education outcomes in the era of global climate change

Nature Climate Change volume 14, pages 214–224 (2024)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Children and youth are vulnerable to the threat of climate change, yet potential non-health impacts, such as those on global education outcomes, are not well understood. In this cross-disciplinary review, we synthesize research linking climate change-related stressors with children’s education outcomes. We find that climate change is probably already undermining education outcomes for many populations worldwide via multiple direct and indirect pathways. We suggest that a developmental life-course framework is well suited to understanding these effects, particularly how climate risks can accumulate across the life course. Further, we show that existing vulnerabilities moderate the relationship between climate stressors and adverse education outcomes. We conclude with a discussion of current methodological challenges and outline future research directions.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Pathways and processes linking climate stressors to altered education outcomes.
Fig. 2: Mean years of schooling and vulnerability to climate change by country.
Fig. 3: Negative reinforcing cycle between climate change and poor education outcomes.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. IPCC Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report (eds Core Writing Team, Lee, H. & Romero, J.) (IPCC, 2023).

  2. Clark, H. et al. A future for the world’s children? A WHO–UNICEF–Lancet Commission. Lancet 395, 605–658 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Ebi, K. L. et al. Hot weather and heat extremes: health risks. Lancet 398, 698–708 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Atwoli, L. et al. Call for emergency action to limit global temperature increases, restore biodiversity, and protect health. N. Engl. J. Med. 385, 1134–1137 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. COP26 Special Report on Climate Change and Health: The Health Argument for Climate Action (WHO, 2021); https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/346168

  6. Berry, H. L., Waite, T. D., Dear, K. B. G., Capon, A. G. & Murray, V. The case for systems thinking about climate change and mental health. Nat. Clim. Change 8, 282–290 (2018).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  7. Evans, G. W. Projected behavioral impacts of global climate change. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 70, 449–474 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Miles-Novelo, A. & Anderson, C. A. Climate Change and Human Behavior: Impacts of a Rapidly Changing Climate on Human Aggression and Violence (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022).

  9. Vergunst, F., Berry, H. L., Minor, K. & Chadi, N. Climate change and substance-use behaviors: a risk-pathways framework. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221132739 (2022).

  10. Vergunst, F. & Berry, H. L. Climate change and children’s mental health: a developmental perspective. Clin. Psychol. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026211040787 (2021).

  11. Reid, A. Climate change education and research: possibilities and potentials versus problems and perils? Environ. Educ. Res. 25, 767–790 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Monroe, M. C., Plate, R. R., Oxarart, A., Bowers, A. & Chaves, W. A. Identifying effective climate change education strategies: a systematic review of the research. Environ. Educ. Res. 25, 791–812 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Rousell, D. & Cutter-Mackenzie-Knowles, A. A systematic review of climate change education: giving children and young people a ‘voice’ and a ‘hand’ in redressing climate change. Child. Geogr. 18, 191–208 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Thamtanajit, K. The impacts of natural disaster on student achievement: evidence from severe floods in Thailand. J. Dev. Areas https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.2020.0042 (2020).

  15. Deuchert, E. & Felfe, C. The tempest: short- and long-term consequences of a natural disaster for children׳s development. Eur. Econ. Rev. 80, 280–294 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Sims, K. & Vincent, K. Education, Girls’ Education and Climate Change Emerging Issues Report (Institute of Development Studies, 2021); https://doi.org/10.19088/K4D.2021.044

  17. Park, R. J. Hot temperature and high stakes performance. J. Hum. Resour. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.57.2.0618-9535R3 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Romanello, M. et al. The 2023 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: the imperative for a health-centred response in a world facing irreversible harms. Lancet https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01859-7 (2023).

  19. Graff Zivin, J. S. G., Hsiang, S. & Neidell, M. Temperature and Human Capital in the Short- and Long-Run Working Paper 21157 (NBER, 2015); https://doi.org/10.3386/w21157

  20. Graff Zivin, J., Song, Y., Tang, Q. & Zhang, P. Temperature and high-stakes cognitive performance: evidence from the national college entrance examination in China. J. Environ. Econ. Manage. 104, 102365 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Zhang, X., Chen, X. & Zhang, X. Temperature and Low-Stakes Cognitive Performance Discussion Paper No. 15972 (IZA, 2023).

  22. Cho, H. The effects of summer heat on academic achievement: a cohort analysis. J. Environ. Econ. Manage. 83, 185–196 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Park, R. J., Goodman, J., Hurwitz, M. & Smith, J. Heat and learning. Am. Econ. J. Econ. Policy 12, 306–339 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Park, R. J., Behrer, A. P. & Goodman, J. Learning is inhibited by heat exposure, both internationally and within the United States. Nat. Hum. Behav. 5, 19–27 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Johnston, D. W., Knott, R., Mendolia, S. & Siminski, P. Upside-down down-under: cold temperatures reduce learning in Australia. Econ. Educ. Rev. 85, 102172 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Pule, V. et al. Classroom temperature and learner absenteeism in public primary schools in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res Public Health 18, 10700 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Wargocki, P., Porras-Salazar, J. A. & Contreras-Espinoza, S. The relationship between classroom temperature and children’s performance in school. Build. Environ. 157, 197–204 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Barbic, F. et al. Effects of different classroom temperatures on cardiac autonomic control and cognitive performances in undergraduate students. Physiol. Meas. 40, 054005 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Haverinen-Shaughnessy, U. & Shaughnessy, R. J. Effects of classroom ventilation rate and temperature on students’ test scores. PLoS ONE https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136165 (2015).

  30. Porras-Salazar, J. A., Wyon, D. P., Piderit-Moreno, B., Contreras-Espinoza, S. & Wargocki, P. Reducing classroom temperature in a tropical climate improved the thermal comfort and the performance of elementary school pupils. Indoor Air 28, 892–904 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Hancock, P. A. & Vasmatzidis, I. Effects of heat stress on cognitive performance: the current state of knowledge. Int. J. Hyperthermia 19, 355–372 (2003).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Minor, K., Bjerre-Nielsen, A., Jonasdottir, S. S., Lehmann, S. & Obradovich, N. Rising temperatures erode human sleep globally. One Earth 5, 534–549 (2022).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  33. Berger, S. E. et al. The impact of extreme summer temperatures in the United Kingdom on infant sleep: implications for learning and development. Sci. Rep. 13, 10061 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  ADS  Google Scholar 

  34. Vanos, J. K., Middel, A., McKercher, G. R., Kuras, E. R. & Ruddell, B. L. Hot playgrounds and children’s health: a multiscale analysis of surface temperatures in Arizona, USA. Landsc. Urban Plan. 146, 29–42 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Garg, T., Jagnani, M. & Taraz, V. Temperature and human capital in India. J. Assoc. Environ. Resour. Econ. 7, 1113–1150 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Kornhuber, K. et al. Risks of synchronized low yields are underestimated in climate and crop model projections. Nat. Commun. 14, 3528 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  ADS  Google Scholar 

  37. Barreca, A. & Schaller, J. The impact of high ambient temperatures on delivery timing and gestational lengths. Nat. Clim. Change 10, 77–82 (2020).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  38. Isen, A., Rossin-Slater, M. & Walker, R. Relationship between season of birth, temperature exposure, and later life wellbeing. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 13447–13452 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  ADS  Google Scholar 

  39. Opper, I. M., Park, R. J. & Husted, L. The effect of natural disasters on human capital in the United States. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7, 1442–1453 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Hyndman, B. & Vanos, J. The Impact of Extreme Weather on School Education: Protecting School Communities (Routledge, 2023).

  41. Lo Bue, M. C. Early childhood during Indonesia’s wildfires: health outcomes and long-run schooling achievements. Econ. Dev. Cult. Change 67, 969–1003 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Miller, R. K. & Hui, I. Impact of short school closures (1–5 days) on overall academic performance of schools in California. Sci. Rep. 12, 2079 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  ADS  Google Scholar 

  43. Wen, J. & Burke, M. Lower test scores from wildfire smoke exposure. Nat. Sustain. 5, 947–955 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Cleland, S. E. et al. Short-term exposure to wildfire smoke and PM2.5 and cognitive performance in a brain-training game: a longitudinal study of US adults. Environ. Health Perspect. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10498 (2022).

  45. Liu, J. C., Pereira, G., Uhl, S. A., Bravo, M. A. & Bell, M. L. A systematic review of the physical health impacts from non-occupational exposure to wildfire smoke. Environ. Res. 136, 120–132 (2015).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Brown, M. R. G. et al. After the Fort McMurray wildfire there are significant increases in mental health symptoms in grade 7–12 students compared to controls. BMC Psychiatry 19, 18 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Amjad, S., Chojecki, D., Osornio-Vargas, A. & Ospina, M. B. Wildfire exposure during pregnancy and the risk of adverse birth outcomes: a systematic review. Environ. Int. 156, 106644 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Sacerdote, B. When the saints go marching out: long-yerm outcomes for student evacuees from hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Am. Econ. J. Appl Econ. 4, 109–135 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Peek, L. & Richardson, K. In their own words: displaced children’s educational recovery needs after Hurricane Katrina. Disaster Med. Public Health Prep. 4, S63–S70 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Marchetta, F., Sahn, D. E. & Tiberti, L. The role of weather on schooling and work of young adults in Madagascar. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 101, 1203–1227 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Lin, Y., Liu, F. & Xu, P. Long-term effects of early-life exposure to tropical cyclones. China Econ. Rev. 69, 101662 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Gitter, S. R. & Barham, B. L. Credit, natural disasters, coffee, and educational attainment in rural Honduras. World Dev. 35, 498–511 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Morrill, M. & Westall, J. Heterogeneity in the educational impacts of natural disasters: evidence from Hurricane Florence. Econ. Educ. Rev. 94, 102373 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Özek, U. Examining the educational spillover effects of severe natural disasters. J. Hum. Resour. 58, 421–451 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Osofsky, H. J., Osofsky, J. D., Kronenberg, M., Brennan, A. & Hansel, T. C. Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after Hurricane Katrina: predicting the need for mental health services. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 79, 212–220 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Nomura, Y. et al. Prenatal exposure to a natural disaster and early development of psychiatric disorders during the preschool years: stress in pregnancy study. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 64, 1080–1091 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Zamand, M. & Hyder, A. Impact of climatic shocks on child human capital: evidence from Young Lives data. Environ. Hazards 15, 246–268 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Shah, A. A. et al. Reconnoitering school children vulnerability and its determinants: evidence from flood disaster-hit rural communities of Pakistan. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 70, 102735 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Ahmed, R., Barkat, W., Ahmed, A., Tahir, M. & Nasir, A. M. The impact of flooding on education of children and adolescents: evidence from Pakistan. Water Econ. Policy https://doi.org/10.1142/S2382624X22400094 (2022).

  60. Mudavanhu, C. The impact of flood disasters on child education in Muzarabani District, Zimbabwe. Jàmbá https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v6i1.138 (2014).

  61. Clemens, S. L., Berry, H. L., McDermott, B. M. & Harper, C. M. Summer of sorrow: measuring exposure to and impacts of trauma after Queensland’s natural disasters of 2010–2011. Med. J. Aust. 199, 552–555 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. The Climate Crisis is a Child Rights Crisis (UNICEF, 2021).

  63. Larkin, H. Conflict and climate collide to create an acute hunger crisis for an unprecedented 345 million people. JAMA https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.19235 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Lieber, M., Chin-Hong, P., Kelly, K., Dandu, M. & Weiser, S. D. A systematic review and meta-analysis assessing the impact of droughts, flooding, and climate variability on malnutrition. Glob. Public Health 17, 68–82 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Salvador, C., Nieto, R., Vicente-Serrano, S. M., García-Herrera, R., Gimeno, L. & Vicedo-Cabrera, A. M. Public health implications of drought in a climate change context: a critical review. Annu. Rev. Public Health 44, 213–232 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Miller, A. C., Murray, M. B., Thomson, D. R. & Arbour, M. C. How consistent are associations between stunting and child development? Evidence from a meta-analysis of associations between stunting and multidimensional child development in fifteen low- and middle-income countries. Public Health Nutr. 19, 1339–1347 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Prado, E. L. & Dewey, K. G. Nutrition and brain development in early life. Nutr. Rev. 72, 267–284 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Adejuwon, J. O. Effect of climate variability on school attendance: a case study of Zamfara State in the semi-arid zone of Nigeria. Weather 71, 248–253 (2016).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  69. Khalili, N., Arshad, M., Farajzadeh, Z., Kächele, H. & Müller, K. Effect of drought on smallholder education expenditures in rural Iran: implications for policy. J. Environ. Manage. 260, 110136 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Nübler, L., Austrian, K., Maluccio, J. A. & Pinchoff, J. Rainfall shocks, cognitive development and educational attainment among adolescents in a drought-prone region in Kenya. Environ. Dev. Econ. 26, 466–487 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Arceo-Gómez, E. O., Hernández-Cortés, D. & López-Feldman, A. Droughts and rural households’ wellbeing: evidence from Mexico. Climatic Change 162, 1197–1212 (2020).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  72. Hyland, M. & Russ, J. Water as destiny—the long-term impacts of drought in sub-Saharan Africa. World Dev. 115, 30–45 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Efobi, U. The long-term labor market effect of drought exposure: evidence from Nigeria. J. Dev. Stud. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2022.2055464 (2022).

  74. Joshi, K. The impact of drought on human capital in rural India. Environ. Dev. Econ. 24, 413–436 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Nordstrom, A. & Cotton, C. Impact of a severe drought on education: more schooling but less learning. SSRN https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3601834 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Falaris, E. M. Children’s school attendance, work, health and rainfall shocks in Ethiopia. Appl. Econ. 55, 4609–4624 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Babugura, A. A. Vulnerability of children and youth in drought disasters: a case study of Botswana. Youth Environ. 18, 126–157 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Mora, C. et al. Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change. Nat. Clim. Change 12, 869–875 (2022).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  79. Carlson, C. J. et al. Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk. Nature 607, 555–562 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  ADS  Google Scholar 

  80. Rocklöv, J. & Dubrow, R. Climate change: an enduring challenge for vector-borne disease prevention and control. Nat. Immunol. 21, 479–483 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Sachs, J. & Malaney, P. The economic and social burden of malaria. Nature 415, 680–685 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Thuilliez, J. et al. Malaria and primary education in Mali: a longitudinal study in the village of Donéguébougou. Soc. Sci. Med 71, 324–334 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Fernando, S. D. et al. The impact of repeated malaria attacks on the school performance of children. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. http://192.248.16.117:8080/research/handle/70130/5662 (2003).

  84. Fernando, S. D., Rodrigo, C. & Rajapakse, S. The ‘hidden’ burden of malaria: cognitive impairment following infection. Malar. J. 9, 366 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Barofsky, J., Anekwe, T. D. & Chase, C. Malaria eradication and economic outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Uganda. J. Health Econ. 44, 118–136 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Cirera, L., Castelló, J. V., Brew, J., Saúte, F. & Sicuri, E. The impact of a malaria elimination initiative on school outcomes: evidence from southern Mozambique. Econ. Hum. Biol. 44, 101100 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Storlazzi, C. D. et al. Most atolls will be uninhabitable by the mid-21st century because of sea-level rise exacerbating wave-driven flooding. Sci. Adv. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aap9741 (2018).

  88. Asugeni, J., MacLaren, D., Massey, P. D. & Speare, R. Mental health issues from rising sea level in a remote coastal region of the Solomon Islands: current and future. Australas. Psychiatry 23, 22–25 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Report of the Open-Ended Intergovernmental Expert Working Group on Indicators and Terminology Relating to Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR, 2016); https://www.undrr.org/implementing-sendai-framework/what-sendai-framework

  90. Koepp, A. E., Lanza, K., Byrd-Williams, C., Bryan, A. E. & Gershoff, E. T. Ambient temperature increases and preschoolers’ outdoor physical activity. JAMA Pediatr. 177, 539–540 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Masten, A. S. & Cicchetti, D. Developmental cascades. Dev. Psychopathol. 22, 491–495 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Kim, J., Lee, A. & Rossin-Slater, M. What to expect when it gets hotter. Am. J. Health Econ. 7, 281–305 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Sheffield, P. E. & Landrigan, P. J. Global climate change and children’s health: threats and strategies for prevention. Environ. Health Perspect. 119, 291–298 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Jackson, M. I. A life course perspective on child health, academic experiences and occupational skill qualifications in adulthood: evidence from a British cohort. Soc. Forces 89, 89–116 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Davis, C. R., Cannon, S. R. & Fuller, S. C. The storm after the storm: the long-term lingering impacts of hurricanes on schools. Disaster Prev. Manage. 30, 264–278 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Carnie, T.-L., Berry, H. L., Blinkhorn, S. A. & Hart, C. R. In their own words: young people’s mental health in drought-affected rural and remote NSW. Aust. J. Rural Health 19, 224–248 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Briggs, E. C., Amaya-Jackson, L., Putnam, K. T. & Putnam, F. W. All adverse childhood experiences are not equal: the contribution of synergy to adverse childhood experience scores. Am. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000768 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Nelson, V., Meadows, K., Cannon, T., Morton, J. & Martin, A. Uncertain predictions, invisible impacts, and the need to mainstream gender in climate change adaptations. Gend. Dev. 10, 51–59 (2002).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Terry, G. No climate justice without gender justice: an overview of the issues. Gend. Dev. 17, 5–18 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Jordan, J. C. Deconstructing resilience: why gender and power matter in responding to climate stress in Bangladesh. Clim. Dev. 11, 167–179 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Gumucio, T., Hansen, J., Huyer, S. & van Huysen, T. Gender-responsive rural climate services: a review of the literature. Clim. Dev. 12, 241–254 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Cordero, E. C., Centeno, D. & Todd, A. M. The role of climate change education on individual lifetime carbon emissions. PLoS ONE https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266 (2020).

  103. Lawson, D. F. et al. Children can foster climate change concern among their parents. Nat. Clim. Change 9, 458–462 (2019).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  104. Feinstein, N. W. & Mach, K. J. Three roles for education in climate change adaptation. Clim. Policy 20, 317–322 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Simpson, N. P. et al. Climate change literacy in Africa. Nat. Clim. Change 11, 937–944 (2021).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  106. Minor, K. et al. Experience exceeds awareness of anthropogenic climate change in Greenland. Nat. Clim. Change 13, 661–670 (2023).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  107. Angrist, N., Winseck, K., Patrinos, H. A. & Graff Zivin, J. Human capital and climate change. SSRN https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4381872 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Hornsey, M. J., Harris, E. A., Bain, P. G. & Fielding, K. S. Meta-analyses of the determinants and outcomes of belief in climate change. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 622–626 (2016).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  109. Burke, M., Hsiang, S. M. & Miguel, E. Climate and Conflict. Annu. Rev. Econ. 7, 577–617 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Cook, T. & Campbell, D. Quasi-Experimentation: Design and Analysis Issues for Field Settings (Houghton Mifflin, 1979).

    Google Scholar 

  111. Gerber, A. & Green, D. Field Experiments: Design, Analysis and Interpretation (Norton, 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  112. Bullock, J. G. & Green, D. P. The failings of conventional mediation analysis and a design-based alternative. Adv. Methods Pract. Psychol. Sci. 4, 251524592110472 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Hsiang, S. Climate econometrics. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ. 8, 43–75 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Lala, B. & Hagishima, A. Impact of escalating heat waves on students’ well-being and overall health: a survey of primary school teachers. Climate 11, 126 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  115. Nguyen, G. & Nguyen, T. T. Exposure to weather shocks: a comparison between self-reported record and extreme weather data. Econ. Anal. Policy 65, 117–138 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Sirin, S. R. Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: a meta-analytic review of research. Rev. Educ. Res. 75, 417–453 (2005).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Pearson, A. R. et al. Climate change and health equity: a research agenda for psychological science. Am. Psychol. 78, 244–258 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Carleton, T. et al. Valuing the global mortality consequences of climate change accounting for adaptation costs and benefits. Q. J. Econ. 137, 2037–2105 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Ebi, K. L. et al. Health risks of warming of 1.5 °C, 2 °C, and higher, above pre-industrial temperatures. Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 063007 (2018).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  120. Our World in Data (Global Change Data Lab, 2023).

  121. Country Index (Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative, 2023); https://gain.nd.edu/our-work/country-index/

  122. IPCC Climate Change 2022 Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (eds Pörtner, H.-O. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022).

  123. Wesselbaum, D. & Aburn, A. Gone with the wind: international migration. Glob. Planet. Change 178, 96–109 (2019).

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  124. Ground Swell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration (World Bank, 2018).

  125. Staying the Course: The Challenges Facing Refugee Education (UNHCR, 2021).

  126. Equitable Access to Quality Education for Internally Displaced Children (UNICEF, 2019); https://www.unicef.org/media/56196/file/

  127. Pane, J. F., McCaffrey, D. F., Kalra, N. & Zhou, A. J. Effects of student displacement in Louisiana during the first academic year after the hurricanes of 2005. J. Educ. Stud. Placed Risk 13, 168–211 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Caitlin M. Prentice

  2. Department of Education, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Caitlin M. Prentice

  3. Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Francis Vergunst

  4. Data Science Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

    Kelton Minor

  5. Center for Social Data Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Kelton Minor

  6. Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Helen L. Berry

Authors
  1. Caitlin M. Prentice
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Francis Vergunst
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kelton Minor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Helen L. Berry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

C.M.P., F.V. and H.L.B. conceptualized the project. All authors contributed to the literature search and synthesis. K.M., C.M.P. and F.V. developed the visualizations and figures. C.M.P. and F.V. drafted the paper. All authors reviewed and contributed substantial edits to the paper and approved the final version for submission.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Caitlin M. Prentice or Francis Vergunst.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Climate Change thanks Isaac M. Opper, Harry A. Patrinos and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Prentice, C.M., Vergunst, F., Minor, K. et al. Education outcomes in the era of global climate change. Nat. Clim. Chang. 14, 214–224 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-01945-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-01945-z

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing