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Under the sea: microbial life in volcanic oceanic crust

Nature Reviews Microbiology volume 9, pages 703–712 (2011)Cite this article

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Abstract

Exploration of the microbiology in igneous, 'hard rock' oceanic crust represents a major scientific frontier. The igneous crust harbours the largest aquifer system on Earth, most of which is hydrologically active, resulting in a substantial exchange of fluids, chemicals and microorganisms between oceanic basins and crustal reservoirs. Study of the deep-subsurface biosphere in the igneous crust is technically challenging. However, technologies have improved over the past decade, providing exciting new opportunities for the study of deep-seated marine life, including in situ and cross-disciplinary experimentation in microbiology, geochemistry and hydrogeology. In this Progress article, we describe the recent advances, available technology and remaining challenges in the study of the marine intraterrestrial microbial life that is harboured in igneous oceanic crust.

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Figure 1: Location of CORKed borehole observatories, schematics of subsurface fluid circulation and venting crustal fluids.
Figure 2: Community structure in the deep ocean and deep biosphere, demonstrating that subsurface crustal bacteria are distinct from the bacteria in other deep-sea environments.
Figure 3: Experimental approaches for studying the sub-seafloor microbiome, as used for seafloor83,84 and sub-seafloor microbiological experiments68,85.
Figure 4: CORK observatory systems for studying the igneous oceanic crust experimentally and manipulatively.

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Acknowledgements

This work is supported by funding from the US National Science Foundation (NSF) Ocean Drilling Program, Marine Geology and Geophysics Program, Microbial Observatories Program and Science and Technology Center Program, and from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (K.J.E. and C.G.W.). This is the Center for Dark Energy Biosphere Investigations contribution #108.

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  1. Departments of Biological & Earth Sciences, Katrina J. Edwards and Jason B. Sylvan are at The University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA. kje@usc.edu,

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  2. jsylvan@usc.edu,

    Katrina J. Edwards & Jason B. Sylvan

  3. C. Geoffrey Wheat is at The Global Undersea Research Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, PO Box 475, Moss Landing, California 95039, USA. kje@usc.edu,

    C. Geoffrey Wheat

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Related links

Glossary

Basalt

A volcanic, extrusive silicate rock that makes up most of the upper igneous oceanic crust.

Basalt alteration

Chemical weathering and precipitation reactions that occur between seafloor and sub-seafloor basalts and sea water. Products include oxides, oxydroxides, clay minerals and carbonates.

Boreholes

Holes that are generated by drilling operations. Most holes are 'single-bit' holes into sediments, for which the hole is abandoned after core recovery. Some single-bit holes penetrate into igneous crust, and a select number of these are equipped with a re-entry cone at the sea floor to permit re-entry into the hole for multi-bit penetrations. Even fewer boreholes are kept open though the use of steel casing, allowing for future operations.

CORK

(Circulation obviation retrofit kit). A plug that seals the borehole at the sea floor, isolating the subsurface aquifers from exchange with sea water and permitting them to recover to pre-drilling conditions.

Crustal-dewatering reactions

Chemical reactions involving the dehydration of crust during the subduction of oceanic slabs into the mantel.

FLOCSs

(Flow-through osmo colonization systems). Modular experimental systems that are composed of a series of cassettes and an osmotic pump, and are designed to encourage colonization and growth in situ for study following sample recovery.

Igneous

Formed from the cooling and crystallization of a magma intrusion (for example, basalt is igneous).

Lithosphere

The rigid outer portion of the Earth, comprising crust and upper mantle. The lithosphere is dissected into plates that undergo motion (plate tectonics).

Mid-ocean ridge

A global locus of new crustal formation where heat from this crustal formation and seafloor spreading drives hydrothermal flow in the crust, thus cooling magmatic intrusions from the mantle.

Oceanic crust

The layer comprising the sediment and basaltic formations overlying the lithosphere; this layer is on average ∼5 km thick.

OsmoSamplers

Continuous fluid samplers that use osmotic membranes and a salt gradient across the membranes to drive fluid collection in small-bore (∼1 mm internal diameter) tubing. A range of pump and sample-coil configurations are possible, allowing samples to be acidified, enriched or preserved in situ.

Radiolysis of water

The dissociation of water by radiation to generate molecular hydrogen, which is an important fuel source for microorganisms.

Seamounts

Large exposed basalt features that extend for more than 1 km above the sea floor. Smaller basaltic features surrounded by sediment are considered outcrops and include much of the young oceanic crust that lacks appreciable sediment cover.

Scientific ocean drilling

Ocean drilling for scientific research has taken place through three programmes since 1966. The Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) operated from 1966 to 1983, followed by the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) until 2003, and now (until 2013) the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) manages operations.

Stalks

Mineral structures that are formed by some microorganisms as by-products of metabolic reactions; stalks occur in a range of shapes and sizes.

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Edwards, K., Wheat, C. & Sylvan, J. Under the sea: microbial life in volcanic oceanic crust. Nat Rev Microbiol 9, 703–712 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2647

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