Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital

Abstract

The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them are critical to the functioning of the Earth's life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet. We have estimated the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US$16-54 trillion (1012) per year, with an average of US$33 trillion per year. Because of the nature of the uncertainties, this must be considered a minimum estimate. Global gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. 1. de Groot, R. S. Environmental functions as a unifying concept for ecology and economics. Environmentalist?, 105-109 (1987). 2. Turner, R. K. Economics, Growth and Sustainable Environments (eds Collard, D. et al.) (Macmillan, London, 1988). 3. Turner, R. K. Economics of wetland management. Ambio 20, 59-63 {1991). 4. de Groot, R. S. Functions of Nature: Evaluation of Nature in Environmental Planning, Management, and Decision Making (Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen, 1992). 5. Daily, G. (ed.) Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems (Island, Washington DC, 1997). 6. Turner, R. K. & Pearce, D. in Economics and Ecology: New Frontiers and Sustainable Development (ed. Barbier, E. D.) 177-194 (Chapman and Hall, London, 1993). 7. Costanza, R. 8c Daly, H. E. Natural capital and Sustainable development. Conserv. Biol. 6, 37-46 (1992). 8. Bingham, G. et al. Issues in ecosystem valuation: improving information for decision making. Ecol. Econ. 14,73-90(1995). 9. Mitchell, R. C. & Carson, R. T. Using Surveys to Value Public Goods: the Contingent Valuation Method (Resources for the Future, Washington DC, 1989). 10. Costanza, R., Farber, S. C. & Maxwell, J. Valuation and management of wetlands ecosystems. Ecol. Econ. 1,335-361 (1989). 11. Dixon, J. A. & Sherman, P. B. Economics of Protected Areas (Island, Washington DC, 1990). 12. Barde, J.-P. & Pearce, D. W. Valuing the Environment: Six Case Studies (Earthscan, London, 1991). 13. Aylward, B. A. & Barbier, E. B. Valuing environmental functions in developing countries. Biodiv. Cons. 1,34(1992). 14. Pearce, D. Economic Values and the Natural World (Earthscan, London, 1993). 15. Goulder, L. H. & Kennedy, D. in Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems (ed. Daily, G.) 23-48 (Island, Washington DC, 1997). 16. Costanza, R. & Folke, C. in Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems (ed. Daily, G.) 49-70 (Island, Washington DC, 1997). 17. Matthews, E. Global vegetation and land-use: new high-resolution data bases for climate studies. /. Clim. Appl. Meteorol 22, 474-487 (1983). 18. Deevey, E. S. Mineral cycles. Sci. Am. 223, 148-158 (1970). 19. Ehrlich, R., Ehrlich, A. H. & Holdren, J. P. Ecoscience: Population, Resources, Environment (W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1977). 20. Ryther, J. H. Photosynthesis and fish production in the sea. Science 166, 72-76 (1969). 21. United Nations Environmental Programme First Assessment Report, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (United Nations, New York, 1990). 22. Whittaker, R. H. & Likens, G. E. in Primary Production of the Biosphere (eds Lieth, H. & Whittaker, R. H.) 305-328 (Springer, New York, 1975). 23. Bailey, R. G. Ecosystem Geography (Springer, New York, 1996). 24. Houde, E. D. & Rutherford, E. S. Recent trends in estuarine fisheries: predictions of fish production and yield. Estuaries 16, 161-176 (1993). 25. Pauly, D. & Christensen, V. Primary production required to sustain global fisheries. Nature 374, 255-257(1995). 26. Costanza, R. & Neil, C. in Energy and Ecological Modeling (eds Mitsch, W. J., Bosserman, R. W. & Klopatek, J. M.) 745-755 (Elsevier, New York, 1981). 27. Costanza, R. & Hannon, B. M. in Network Analysis of Marine Ecosystems: Methods and Applications (eds Wulff, E, Field, J. G. & Mann, K. H.) 90-115 (Springer, Heidelberg, 1989). 28. Alexander, A., List, J., Margolis, M. & d'Arge, R. Alternative methods of valuing global ecosystem services. Ecol. Econ. (submitted). 29. Costanza, R., Wainger, L., Folke, C. & Maler, K.-G. Modeling complex ecological economic systems: toward an evolutionary, dynamic understanding of people and nature. BioScience43,545-555 (1993). 30. Bockstael, N. et al. Ecological economic modeling and valuation of ecosystems. Ecol. Econ. 14, 143-159(1995). 31. Daly, H. E. & Cobb, J. For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Towards Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (Beacon, Boston, 1989). 32. Cobb, C. & Cobb, J. The Green National Product: a Proposed Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (Univ. Press of America, New York, 1994). 33. Max-Neef, M. Economic growth and quality of life: a threshold hypothesis. Ecol. Econ. 15, 115-118 (1995).

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Electronic Supplementary Material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R. et al. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387, 253–260 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1038/387253a0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/387253a0

Comments

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing