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Thermal scanning probe lithography

Nature Reviews Methods Primers volume 2, Article number: 32 (2022) Cite this article

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Abstract

Thermal scanning probe lithography (tSPL) is a nanofabrication method for the chemical and physical nanopatterning of a large variety of materials and polymer resists with a lateral resolution of 10 nm and a depth resolution of 1 nm. In this Primer, we describe the working principles of tSPL and highlight the characteristics that make it a powerful tool to locally and directly modify material properties in ambient conditions. We introduce the main features of tSPL, which can pattern surfaces by locally delivering heat using nanosized thermal probes. We define the most critical patterning parameters in tSPL and describe post-patterning analysis of the obtained results. The main sources of reproducibility issues related to the probe and the sample as well as the limitations of the tSPL technique are discussed together with mitigation strategies. The applications of tSPL covered in this Primer include those in biomedicine, nanomagnetism and nanoelectronics; specifically, we cover the fabrication of chemical gradients, tissue-mimetic surfaces, spin wave devices and field-effect transistors based on two-dimensional materials. Finally, we provide an outlook on new strategies that can improve tSPL for future research and the fabrication of next-generation devices.

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Fig. 1: Applications of tSPL in biology, nanomagnetism and nanoelectronics.
Fig. 2: Basic components of the tSPL set-up.
Fig. 3: Thermal transport and advanced tSPL set-up options.
Fig. 4: Workflow for the electrodes patterning via tSPL and the device characterizations.
Fig. 5: Schematic representation of bio-tSPL for producing millimetre-sized bone tissue replicas.
Fig. 6: Dependence of tSPL on the patterning temperature and speed.
Fig. 7: Workflow for the generation of chemical gradients.
Fig. 8: Thermally assisted magnetic scanning probe lithography and applications.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank the US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences (under award no. DE-SC0018924), the US Army Research Office (under Award no. W911NF2020116) and the National Science Foundation (award NSF CBET — 1914539). The experiments were performed with a NanoFrazor system acquired through award no. NSF MRI — 1929453. This Primer is part of a project that has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement number 948225, project B3YOND. This work was partially performed at PoliFAB, the microtechnology and nanotechnology centre of the Politecnico di Milano.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physics, Polytechnic University of Milan, Milan, Italy

    Edoardo Albisetti

  2. Department of Electronic and Biomedical Engineering, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

    Annalisa Calò

  3. Nanoscale Bioelectrical Characterization Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona, Spain

    Annalisa Calò

  4. Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, New York, NY, USA

    Alessandra Zanut, Giuseppe Maria de Peppo & Elisa Riedo

  5. School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

    Xiaorui Zheng

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Contributions

Introduction (E.R., G.M.d.P. and A.C.); Experimentation (E.A.); Results (E.A., A.C., A.Z. and X.Z.); Applications (E.A., A.C., A.Z., X.Z. and G.M.d.P.); Reproducibility and data deposition (A.C.); Limitations and optimizations (A.C.); Outlook (E.R., E.A. and G.M.d.P.); Overview of the Primer (E.R.).

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Correspondence to Elisa Riedo.

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Glossary

Maskless patterning

A patterning technique that does not require a physical mask to protect the areas of the samples from unwanted transformations; in optical lithography, a mask is used to protect the area of the sample from light irradiation.

Markerless patterning

A patterning technique that does not require alignment markers; alignment markers are used in techniques such as electron beam lithography for the correct positioning of the pattern within the sample surface as patterning areas cannot be reached with an electron beam without exposing the resist.

Closed-loop lithography

A description of a commercial thermal scanning probe lithography (tSPL) strategy where, after one patterning line, the topography of the written line is imaged with the cold probe and a feedback algorithm adjusts the patterning conditions to make the pattern as close as possible to the design.

Joule heating

The generation of heat associated with the flow of an electric current in a resistive material.

Oxidation sharpening

A process widely used for sharpening atomic force microscope (AFM) probes that consists of a thermal oxidation step followed by the removal of the oxide.

Cantilever deflection

Measure of the bending of the cantilever in the vertical direction.

Spin textures

Non-uniform configurations of the magnetization in magnetic materials, such as domain walls, magnetic vortices or magnetic skyrmions.

Probe load

The force applied by the probe on the sample during patterning.

Thermal bending

An effect caused by the temperature dependence of the mechanical stress profiles within the cantilever, which causes the cantilever to bend when heated.

Deprotection reaction

The process of removing a protecting group that is present in a polymer resist to expose specific chemical groups at the surface of the resist film.

Exchange bias effect

An effect occurring at the interface between a ferromagnetic and an antiferromagnetic material, which causes a shift in the hysteresis loop of the ferromagnet, ‘pinning’ the magnetization of the ferromagnet in one direction.

Blocking temperature

The temperature above which the exchange bias effect vanishes.

Schottky barrier

An electrostatic depletion layer formed at the junction of a metal and a semiconductor, which causes it to act as an electrical rectifier.

Plasma dry etching

The removal of plastic or other semiconductor material using plasma as opposed to chemical treatment.

Pixel heating time

(Also known as pixel dwell time). In commercial thermal scanning probe lithography (tSPL) set-ups, the time (in microseconds) that the heated cantilever spends in each position (pixel) of the pattern.

Patterning step size

In commercial thermal scanning probe lithography (tSPL) set-ups, the distance between two consecutive positions (pixels) to be heated during patterning.

Magnetization dynamics

The time-dependent evolution of the magnetization in magnetic materials.

Spin waves

(Also known as magnons). Wave-like perturbations in the orientation of the magnetization, which propagate in magnetic materials.

Dirac point

In graphene, the point of intersection of the valence and conduction electronic bands.

Piezo drifts

Unwanted motion of the actuators that control the sample position relative to the probe in three directions. Piezo drift can depend on temperature fluctuations or on piezo non-idealities, and affects the probe–sample contact (z drift) or gives rise to distorted features (x–y drift).

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Albisetti, E., Calò, A., Zanut, A. et al. Thermal scanning probe lithography. Nat Rev Methods Primers 2, 32 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-022-00110-0

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