Dear Editor,
Sebaceous glands (SG) contribute to 90% of the skin surface lipid production and play critical roles in regulating proper skin functions including epidermal barrier maintenance, dermal immune responses, and global body anti-microbial activities.1 Reduced sebaceous lipid has been implicated in diverse skin diseases, including scarring alopecia, inflammation, chronic itch, as well as premature aging of the skin.2 Especially, scar repair after deep burns or large-scale skin defect often leads to irreversible loss of appendages. Due to lacking SG, the regenerated tissues cannot fully recapitulate the structural and functional integrity of normal skin. Therefore, generation of expandable SG cells with developmental and lipid-producing potentials represents a promising approach for treating diseased, damaged, or aged skin with better quality of life. Recently, direct cellular reprogramming has been widely used for obtaining difficult-to-maintain human cells by cell type-specific transcription factors (TFs). Small molecules are also used to promote TF-mediated cellular reprogramming and shorten the process of generating safer customized cells for transplantation. However, the conversion of human somatic cells into SG cells has not been investigated so far. Here, we described a step-wise reprogramming strategy that permits the generation of expandable and functionally competent human SG cells.
Human epidermal keratinocytes (HEK) isolated from adult foreskin showed no contamination of SG cells as assayed by qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence (Supplementary Fig. S1a, b). Comparative transcriptome analysis between HEK and primary SG cells (pSC) revealed that the upregulated differentially expressed genes (DEG) were significantly involved in several biological processes relevant to adipogenesis and lipid metabolism (Supplementary Fig. S2a), in which PPAR signaling pathway was enriched by KEGG analysis (Fig. 1a). Accordingly, PPARγ was selected as a potential SG fate-determining factor owing to its unique role in SG specification and patterning.3,4 To induce SG conversion, HEK stably overexpressing PPARγ (HEK-PPARγ) were generated using lentiviral pLV-CMV-PPARγ-P2A-EGFP vector (Supplementary Fig. S2b, c). KEGG analysis showed that the upregulated DEG were mainly enriched in lipid-related pathways, and PPAR signaling pathway was activated after PPARγ overexpression (Supplementary Fig. S2d). Then, we switched HEK-PPARγ to the SG induction medium (SGIM) containing SG organogenesis molecules EGF, FGF7 and FGF10. HEK-PPARγ cultured in SGIM were thereafter referred as HPSM. After 3 days of exposure, HPSM with SG cell-like morphology emerged (Supplementary Fig. 2e). qRT-PCR showed that several key SG genes including AR, GATA6, CK7, as well as SG differentiation markers MUC1 and PLIN2, were markedly upregulated on day 6 (Fig. 1b). Further immunofluorescence demonstrated the percentage of HPSM expressing MUC1, CK7 and FASN was 29.2 ± 3.2%, 37.2 ± 2.7%, and 52.9 ± 6.6%, respectively (Supplementary Fig. S2f, g).
To test the reliability of our induction strategy, neonatal HEK (NHEK) were also transduced with PPARγ (NHEK-PPARγ) (Supplementary Fig. S3a, b). Similarly, SG cell-like morphology appeared after 3 days of SGIM induction (Supplementary Fig. 3c). The increased expression of CK7 and MUC1 was confirmed by qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence (Supplementary Fig. 3d–f). Notably, the conversion efficiency of NHEK was higher than that of adult HEK, evidenced by immunofluorescence of CK7 (77.0 ± 4.3% vs. 36.4 ± 2.1%) and MUC1 (80.9 ± 3.9% vs. 19.9 ± 0.6%), suggesting that NHEK were more susceptible to cellular reprogramming than adult HEK (Fig. 1c). Moreover, qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence revealed that stemness-associated genes were highly expressed in NHEK (Supplementary Fig. S4a, b). CFU assay results showed that NHEK possessed a strong clonal growth capacity (Supplementary Fig. S4c, d). We thus hypothesized that additional factors that enhance stemness may boost the efficiency of SG reprogramming. To this end, two reported chemicals 616452 (6) and CHIR99021 (C) were added to improve SG conversion based on their known roles in enhancing stemness.5,6 Expectedly, qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence showed upregulated expression of stemness-associated genes in the 6C-treated HEK (Supplementary Fig. S5a, b). CFU assays further demonstrated that 6C pretreatment triggered an enhanced ability to form larger colonies (Fig. 1d).
Given these results, we designed the strategy to systemically reprogram HEK into induced SG cells (iSC) by combining 6C pretreatment, PPARγ overexpression, and SGIM culture (Fig. 1e). The induced cells grew rapidly and displayed typical tight aggregates with SG cell-like morphology at day 12 (Fig. 1f). Additionally, mRNA levels of CK7 and SG progenitor markers LRIG1 and SOX9 were significantly upregulated in iSC (Fig. 1g). Immunofluorescence revealed that iSC expressed LRIG1, CK7, and FASN, demonstrating a gain of SG progenitor phenotype (Fig. 1h). Further genome heatmap showed that the iSC resembled their in vivo counterparts in terms of expression profiles including lipid synthesis genes, fatty acid binding protein genes, and lipid metabolic-associated transcription factors. TFs that modulate stem cell maintenance and signaling components that regulate progenitor proliferation were also enriched in iSC, suggesting the converted iSC exhibited molecular features of SG progenitors (Fig. 1i).
To characterize their functional properties in vitro, iSC were transferred into SG differentiation medium. After 10–14 days of differentiation, the iSC exhibited typical polygonal morphology (Supplementary Fig. 6a). Immunofluorescence analysis demonstrated that iSC cultured in SG differentiation medium exhibited dramatically increased percentage of MUC1+ cells (81.9 ± 2.4%) and PLIN2+ cells (92.6 ± 0.6%) (Fig. 1j). Ultrastructure analysis of the differentiated cells showed typical lipid-producing organelles including Golgi apparatus and lipid droplets (Fig. 1l). Remarkably, functional examination by ORO staining showed massive accumulation of lipid droplets in the differentiated iSC, suggesting that iSC can mimic native SG progenitors with lipid synthesis activity upon differentiation (Fig. 1k). By karyotype analysis, both iSC and iSC-derived differentiated sebocytes were stably expandable in vitro with normal karyotypes (Supplementary Fig. 6b). Additional gene expression profiling by RNA-seq showed that the differentiated iSC displayed expression patterns like primary SG cells in a set of genes involved in lipid metabolism, glycerolipid metabolism, and phospholipid metabolism (Fig. 1m).
To investigate their tissue reconstitution potential in vivo, the mixture of iSC and human fibroblasts or fibroblasts only (as control) were injected intradermally into a pilot full-thickness excisional wound. Compared to control group, a significant acceleration of wound closure was observed in the iSC transplantation mice (Fig. 1n, o). Moreover, well-organized de novo glandular structures with SG features were seen within the dermis of iSC-transplanted mice by 71 days (Fig. 1p). Tissue sections of the harvested wounds demonstrated that GFP-marked iSC progeny survived, and clusters of GFP+ cells expressing MUC1, FASN, and CK7 were observed extensively in the newly formed SG (Fig. 1q). Subsequent greasiness assessment of the re-epithelialized skin showed that iSC-treated wounds exhibited greasier than control wounds (Fig. 1r). ORO staining confirmed that, similar to native SG, the regenerated SG have lipid synthesis function, and approximately 15 ± 2.9% of the iSC-treated mice showed positive ORO staining (Fig. 1s). Lipid profiles characterization by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry revealed that a specific spectrum of lipids, including triacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, and free fatty acids, were enriched in the regenerated skin of iSC-treated mice (Fig. 1t). Further principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis showed that lipidomic profiles of the regenerated skin from iSC-treated wound were clustered closely with those from normal skin (Fig. 1u, v), indicating that iSC could facilitate functional SG regeneration.
To figure out whether the regenerative ability of iSC might be affected by foreign microenvironments, we next challenged the regenerative ability of iSC by transplanting them into subcutaneous muscle layer. After 112 days, ectopically regenerated skin-like structures were seen in the sub-fascia (Fig. 1w), which possessed keratinized multilayered epidermis and dermis containing SG-like structures with visible glandular domain (Fig. 1w). Immunofluorescence confirmed the expression of FASN, CK7, and MUC1 in the ectopically regenerated SG by iSC (Fig. 1x). Besides, human-specific histone protein H1 further confirmed the human origin of GFP+ SG glandular structures (Fig. 1x). Finally, ORO staining showed that the ectopically regenerated SG had lipid synthesis function, and approximately (13.33 ± 3.3%) of the mice were positive for ORO staining (Fig. 1y).
In conclusion, human SG cells with regenerative capacity can be generated by single factor-directed lineage reprogramming, highlighting potential therapeutic implications for personalized wound healing and delaying skin aging.
Data availability
Data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Esler, W. P. et al. Human sebum requires de novo lipogenesis, which is increased in acne vulgaris and suppressed by acetyl-CoA carboxylase inhibition. Sci. Transl. Med. 11, eaau8465 (2019).
Feldman, A. et al. Blimp1+ cells generate functional mouse sebaceous gland organoids in vitro. Nat. Commun. 10, 2348 (2019).
Sardella, C. et al. Delayed hair follicle morphogenesis and hair follicle dystrophy in a lipoatrophy mouse model of Pparg total deletion. J. Invest. Dermatol. 138, 500–510 (2018).
Wang, X. et al. Hair follicle and sebaceous gland de novo regeneration with cultured epidermal stem cells and skin-derived precursors. Stem Cells Transl. Med. 5, 1695–1706 (2016).
Yin, X. et al. Niche-independent high-purity cultures of Lgr5+ intestinal stem cells and their progeny. Nat. Methods 11, 106–112 (2014).
Ichida, J. K. et al. A small-molecule inhibitor of Tgf-β signaling replaces. Sox2 in reprogramming by inducing nanog. Cell Stem Cell 5, 491–503 (2009).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (92268206, 81830064), the CAMS Innovation Fund for Medical Sciences (CIFMS, 2019-I2M-5-059), the Military Medical Research Projects (145AKJ260015000X, 2022-JCJQ-ZB-09600, 2020-JCJQ-ZD-256-021), the Military Medical Research and Development Projects (AWS17J005, 2019-126), and the Specific Research Fund of The Innovation Platform for Academicians of Hainan Province (YSPTZX202317).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Y.L., S.J., and H.G. performed the experiments, analyzed the results, and wrote the manuscript. H.C. and J.X. collected data and performed the experiments. S.C. performed data analysis, interpretation, and visualization. C.C.Z. has developed and provided the immortalized human sebaceous gland cell line SZ95 and reviewed the final manuscript before submission. A.C. conceived the study, supervised the experiments, performed quality control of experiments, and reviewed the final manuscript before submission. X.S. and X.F. conceived the study, designed the experiments, provided funding support, and reviewed the final manuscript before submission. All authors have read the manuscript and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethics declarations
: All the animal experimental procedures were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Chinese PLA General Hospital. The research in this study conformed to the ethical protocols, and the present study was approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the General Hospital of PLA (Beijing, China).
Supplementary information
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Liu, Y., Ji, S., Gao, H. et al. Sebaceous gland reprogramming with a single gene, PPARG, and small molecules. Sig Transduct Target Ther 8, 286 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-023-01531-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-023-01531-3