Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Choice, uncertainty and value in prefrontal and cingulate cortex

Nature Neuroscience volume 11, pages 389–397 (2008)Cite this article

Abstract

Reinforcement learning models that focus on the striatum and dopamine can predict the choices of animals and people. Representations of reward expectation and of reward prediction errors that are pertinent to decision making, however, are not confined to these regions but are also found in prefrontal and cingulate cortex. Moreover, decisions are not guided solely by the magnitude of the reward that is expected. Uncertainty in the estimate of the reward expectation, the value of information that might be gained by taking a course of action and the cost of an action all influence the manner in which decisions are made through prefrontal and cingulate cortex.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Relevant articles

Open Access articles citing this article.

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Get just this article for as long as you need it

$39.95

Learn more

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: Probability, risk and uncertainty.
Figure 2: Prediction error encoding in the ACC.
Figure 3: ACC, volatility and the learning rate.
Figure 4: Interrelationships between the learning rate and the reward history.
Figure 5: Anterior cingulate cortex and the valuation of social information.
Figure 6: VMPFC activation and representation of subjective value.
Figure 7: OFC single-neuron activity does not represent reward value in a simple unitary code.

References

  1. Rescorla, R. & Wagner, A. A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. in Classical Conditioning (eds. Black, A.H. & Prokasy, W.F.) 64–99 (Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1972).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Sutton, R. & Barto, A.G. Reinforcement Learning (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1998).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Dayan, P., Kakade, S. & Montague, P.R. Learning and selective attention. Nat. Neurosci. 3 (suppl.): 1218–1223 (2000).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Courville, A.C., Daw, N.D. & Touretzky, D.S. Bayesian theories of conditioning in a changing world. Trends Cogn. Sci. 10, 294–300 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Behrens, T.E., Woolrich, M.W., Walton, M.E. & Rushworth, M.F. Learning the value of information in an uncertain world. Nat. Neurosci. 10, 1214–1221 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Schultz, W. Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 57, 87–115 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Roesch, M.R., Calu, D.J. & Schoenbaum, G. Dopamine neurons encode the better option in rats deciding between differently delayed or sized rewards. Nat. Neurosci. 10, 1615–1624 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Tobler, P.N., Fiorillo, C.D. & Schultz, W. Adaptive coding of reward value by dopamine neurons. Science 307, 1642–1645 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Satoh, T., Nakai, S., Sato, T. & Kimura, M. Correlated coding of motivation and outcome of decision by dopamine neurons. J. Neurosci. 23, 9913–9923 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Fiorillo, C.D., Tobler, P.N. & Schultz, W. Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons. Science 299, 1898–1902 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Samejima, K., Ueda, Y., Doya, K. & Kimura, M. Representation of action-specific reward values in the striatum. Science 310, 1337–1340 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. O'Doherty, J.P., Deichmann, R., Critchley, H.D. & Dolan, R.J. Neural responses during anticipation of a primary taste reward. Neuron 33, 815–826 (2002).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Haruno, M. et al. A neural correlate of reward-based behavioral learning in caudate nucleus: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of a stochastic decision task. J. Neurosci. 24, 1660–1665 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Haruno, M. & Kawato, M. Different neural correlates of reward expectation and reward expectation error in the putamen and caudate nucleus during stimulus-action-reward association learning. J. Neurophysiol. 95, 948–959 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. O'Doherty, J. et al. Dissociable roles of ventral and dorsal striatum in instrumental conditioning. Science 304, 452–454 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Haruno, M. & Kawato, M. Heterarchical reinforcement-learning model for integration of multiple cortico-striatal loops: fMRI examination in stimulus-action-reward association learning. Neural Netw. 19, 1242–1254 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Tanaka, S.C. et al. Prediction of immediate and future rewards differentially recruits cortico-basal ganglia loops. Nat. Neurosci. 7, 887–893 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Daw, N.D., O'Doherty, J.P., Dayan, P., Seymour, B. & Dolan, R.J. Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans. Nature 441, 876–879 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Cohen, M.X. & Ranganath, C. Reinforcement learning signals predict future decisions. J. Neurosci. 27, 371–378 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Williams, S.M. & Goldman-Rakic, P.S. Widespread origin of the primate mesofrontal dopamine system. Cereb. Cortex 8, 321–345 (1998).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Matsumoto, K., Suzuki, W. & Tanaka, K. Neuronal correlates of goal-based motor selection in the prefrontal cortex. Science 301, 229–232 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Amiez, C., Joseph, J.P. & Procyk, E. Reward encoding in the monkey anterior cingulate cortex. Cereb. Cortex 16, 1040–1055 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Seo, H. & Lee, D. Temporal filtering of reward signals in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex during a mixed-strategy game. J. Neurosci. 27, 8366–8377 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Amiez, C., Joseph, J.P. & Procyk, E. Anterior cingulate error-related activity is modulated by predicted reward. Eur. J. Neurosci. 21, 3447–3452 (2005).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Matsumoto, M., Matsumoto, K., Abe, H. & Tanaka, K. Medial prefrontal cell activity signaling prediction errors of action values. Nat. Neurosci. 10, 647–656 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Mars, R.B. et al. Neural dynamics of error processing in medial frontal cortex. Neuroimage 28, 1007–1013 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Ullsperger, M., Nittono, H. & von Cramon, D.Y. When goals are missed: dealing with self-generated and externally induced failure. Neuroimage 35, 1356–1364 (2007).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Klein, T.A. et al. Genetically determined differences in learning from errors. Science 318, 1642–1645 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Walton, M.E., Devlin, J.T. & Rushworth, M.F.S. Interactions between decision making and performance monitoring within prefrontal cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 7, 1259–1265 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Debener, S. et al. Trial-by-trial coupling of concurrent electroencephalogram and functional magnetic resonance imaging identifies the dynamics of performance monitoring. J. Neurosci. 25, 11730–11737 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Holroyd, C.B. & Coles, M.G. The neural basis of human error processing: reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity. Psychol. Rev. 109, 679–709 (2002).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Oliveira, F.T., McDonald, J.J. & Goodman, D. Performance monitoring in the anterior cingulate is not all error related: expectancy deviation and the representation of action-outcome associations. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19, 1994–2004 (2007).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Bayer, H.M. & Glimcher, P.W. Midbrain dopamine neurons encode a quantitative reward prediction error signal. Neuron 47, 129–141 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Morris, G., Nevet, A., Arkadir, D., Vaadia, E. & Bergman, H. Midbrain dopamine neurons encode decisions for future action. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 1057–1063 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Tobler, P.N., Dickinson, A. & Schultz, W. Coding of predicted reward omission by dopamine neurons in a conditioned inhibition paradigm. J. Neurosci. 23, 10402–10410 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Ljunberg, T., Apicella, P. & Schultz, W. Responses of monkey dopamine neurons during learning of behavioral reactions. J. Neurophysiol. 67, 145–163 (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Dum, R.P. & Strick, P.L. Spinal cord terminations of the medial wall motor areas in macaque monkeys. J. Neurosci. 16, 6513–6525 (1996).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Van Hoesen, G.W., Morecraft, R.J. & Vogt, B.A. Connections of the monkey cingulate cortex. in Neurobiology of Cingulate Cortex and Limbic Thalamus (eds. Vogt, B.A. & Gabriel, M.) 249–284 (Birkhauser, Boston, 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Akkal, D., Bioulac, B., Audin, J. & Burbaud, P. Comparison of neuronal activity in the rostral supplementary and cingulate motor areas during a task with cognitive and motor demands. Eur. J. Neurosci. 15, 887–904 (2002).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Hoshi, E., Sawamura, H. & Tanji, J. Neurons in the rostral cingulate motor area monitor multiple phases of visuomotor behavior with modest parametric selectivity. J. Neurophysiol. 94, 640–656 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Sugrue, L.P., Corrado, G.S. & Newsome, W.T. Matching behavior and the representation of value in the parietal cortex. Science 304, 1782–1787 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Kennerley, S.W., Walton, M.E., Behrens, T.E., Buckley, M.J. & Rushworth, M.F. Optimal decision making and the anterior cingulate cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 940–947 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Corrado, G.S., Sugrue, L.P., Seung, H.S. & Newsome, W.T. Linear-nonlinear-Poisson models of primate choice dynamics. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 84, 581–617 (2005).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Yoshida, W. & Ishii, S. Resolution of uncertainty in prefrontal cortex. Neuron 50, 781–789 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Deiber, M.-P. et al. Cortical areas and the selection of movement: a study with positron emission tomography. Exp. Brain Res. 84, 393–402 (1991).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Forstmann, B.U., Brass, M., Koch, I. & von Cramon, D.Y. Voluntary selection of task sets revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18, 388–398 (2006).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Procyk, E., Tanaka, Y.L. & Joseph, J.P. Anterior cingulate activity during routine and non-routine sequential behaviors in macaques. Nat. Neurosci. 3, 502–508 (2000).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Deaner, R.O., Khera, A.V. & Platt, M.L. Monkeys pay per view: adaptive valuation of social images by rhesus macaques. Curr. Biol. 15, 543–548 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Shepherd, S.V., Deaner, R.O. & Platt, M.L. Social status gates social attention in monkeys. Curr. Biol. 16, R119–R120 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Rudebeck, P.H., Buckley, M.J., Walton, M.E. & Rushworth, M.F. A role for the macaque anterior cingulate gyrus in social valuation. Science 313, 1310–1312 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Rudebeck, P.H. et al. Distinct contributions of frontal areas to emotion and social behavior in the rat. Eur. J. Neurosci. 26, 2315–2326 (2007).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Tomlin, D. et al. Agent-specific responses in the cingulate cortex during economic exchanges. Science 312, 1047–1050 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Delgado, M.R., Frank, R.H. & Phelps, E.A. Perceptions of moral character modulate the neural systems of reward during the trust game. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 1611–1618 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. King-Casas, B. et al. Getting to know you: reputation and trust in a two-person economic exchange. Science 308, 78–83 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Amodio, D.M. & Frith, C.D. Meeting of minds: the medial frontal cortex and social cognition. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 7, 268–277 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Schoenbaum, G., Chiba, A.A. & Gallagher, M. Orbitofrontal cortex and basolateral amygdala encode expected outcomes during learning. Nat. Neurosci. 1, 155–159 (1998).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Tremblay, L. & Schultz, W. Relative reward preference in primate orbitofrontal cortex. Nature 398, 704–708 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Rushworth, M.F., Behrens, T.E., Rudebeck, P.H. & Walton, M.E. Contrasting roles for cingulate and orbitofrontal cortex in decisions and social behavior. Trends Cogn. Sci. 11, 168–176 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Wallis, J.D. & Miller, E.K. Neuronal activity in primate dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal cortex during performance of a reward preference task. Eur. J. Neurosci. 18, 2069–2081 (2003).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Rolls, E.T. & Baylis, L.L. Gustatory, olfactory, and visual convergence within the primate orbitofrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 14, 5437–5452 (1994).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Rolls, E.T., Critchley, H.D., Browning, A.S., Hernadi, I. & Lenard, L. Responses to the sensory properties of fat of neurons in the primate orbitofrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 19, 1532–1540 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Padoa-Schioppa, C. & Assad, J.A. The representation of economic value in the orbitofrontal cortex is invariant for changes of menu. Nat. Neurosci. 11, 95–102 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Rolls, E.T., Sienkiewicz, Z.J. & Yaxley, S. Hunger modulates the responses to gustatory stimuli of single neurons in the caudolateral orbitofrontal cortex of the macaque monkey. Eur. J. Neurosci. 1, 53–60 (1989).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Gallagher, M., McMahan, R.W. & Schoenbaum, G. Orbitofrontal cortex and representation of incentive value in associative learning. J. Neurosci. 19, 6610–6614 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Baxter, M.G., Parker, A., Lindner, C.C.C., Izquierdo, A.D. & Murray, E.A. Control of response selection by reinforcer value requires interaction of amygdala and orbital frontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 20, 4311–4319 (2000).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Izquierdo, A., Suda, R.K. & Murray, E.A. Bilateral orbital prefrontal cortex lesions in rhesus monkeys disrupt choices guided by both reward value and reward contingency. J. Neurosci. 24, 7540–7548 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Ostlund, S. & Balleine, B.W. The contribution of orbitofrontal cortex to action selection. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 1121, 174–192 (2007).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Padoa-Schioppa, C. & Assad, J.A. Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value. Nature 441, 223–226 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Platt, M.L. & Glimcher, P.W. Neural correlates of decision variables in parietal cortex. Nature 400, 233–238 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Knutson, B., Taylor, J., Kaufman, M., Peterson, R. & Glover, G. Distributed neural representation of expected value. J. Neurosci. 25, 4806–4812 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. McClure, S.M., Laibson, D.I., Loewenstein, G. & Cohen, J.D. Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science 306, 503–507 (2004).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Kable, J.W. & Glimcher, P.W. The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice. Nat. Neurosci. 10, 1625–1633 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Hampton, A.N., Bossaerts, P. & O'Doherty, J.P. The role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in abstract state-based inference during decision making in humans. J. Neurosci. 26, 8360–8367 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Plassmann, H., O'Doherty, J. & Rangel, A. Orbitofrontal cortex encodes willingness to pay in everyday economic transactions. J. Neurosci. 27, 9984–9988 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Knutson, B., Rick, S., Wimmer, G.E., Prelec, D. & Loewenstein, G. Neural predictors of purchases. Neuron 53, 147–156 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Vogt, B.A., Vogt, L., Farber, N.B. & Bush, G. Architecture and neurocytology of monkey cingulate gyrus. J. Comp. Neurol. 485, 218–239 (2005).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Ongur, D., Ferry, A.T. & Price, J.L. Architectonic subdivision of the human orbital and medial prefrontal cortex. J. Comp. Neurol. 460, 425–449 (2003).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Carmichael, S.T. & Price, J.L. Connectional networks within the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex of macaque monkeys. J. Comp. Neurol. 371, 179–207 (1996).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Walton, M.E., Kennerley, S.W., Bannerman, D.M., Phillips, P.E. & Rushworth, M.F. Weighing up the benefits of work: behavioral and neural analyses of effort-related decision making. Neural Netw. 19, 1302–1314 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Roesch, M.R. & Olson, C.R. Neuronal activity in primate orbitofrontal cortex reflects the value of time. J. Neurophysiol. 94, 2457–2471 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Roesch, M.R., Taylor, A.R. & Schoenbaum, G. Encoding of time-discounted rewards in orbitofrontal cortex is independent of value representation. Neuron 51, 509–520 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Feierstein, C.E., Quirk, M.C., Uchida, N., Sosulski, D.L. & Mainen, Z.F. Representation of spatial goals in rat orbitofrontal cortex. Neuron 51, 495–507 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Kheramin, S. et al. Effects of quinolinic acid-induced lesions of the orbital prefrontal cortex on inter-temporal choice: a quantitative analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 165, 9–17 (2002).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Mobini, S. et al. Effects of lesions of the orbitofrontal cortex on sensitivity to delayed and probabilistic reinforcement. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 160, 290–298 (2002).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Rudebeck, P.H., Walton, M.E., Smyth, A.N., Bannerman, D.M. & Rushworth, M.F. Separate neural pathways process different decision costs. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 1161–1168 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Walton, M.E., Bannerman, D.M. & Rushworth, M.F.S. The role of rat medial frontal cortex in effort-based decision making. J. Neurosci. 22, 10996–11003 (2002).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Walton, M.E., Bannerman, D.M., Alterescu, K. & Rushworth, M.F.S. Functional specialization within medial frontal cortex of the anterior cingulate for evaluating effort-related decisions. J. Neurosci. 23, 6475–6479 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Shidara, M. & Richmond, B.J. Anterior cingulate: single neuronal signals related to degree of reward expectancy. Science 296, 1709–1711 (2002).

    Google Scholar 

  89. Daw, N.D., Niv, Y. & Dayan, P. Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 1704–1711 (2005).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Preuschoff, K., Bossaerts, P. & Quartz, S.R. Neural differentiation of expected reward and risk in human subcortical structures. Neuron 51, 381–390 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Tobler, P.N., O'Doherty, J.P., Dolan, R.J. & Schultz, W. Reward value coding distinct from risk attitude-related uncertainty coding in human reward systems. J. Neurophysiol. 97, 1621–1632 (2007).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. McClure, S.M., Ericson, K.M., Laibson, D.I., Loewenstein, G. & Cohen, J.D. Time discounting for primary rewards. J. Neurosci. 27, 5796–5804 (2007).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Watanabe, M. Reward expectancy in primate prefrontal neurons. Nature 382, 629–632 (1996).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Kobayashi, S. et al. Influences of rewarding and aversive outcomes on activity in macaque lateral prefrontal cortex. Neuron 51, 861–870 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Watanabe, M. & Sakagami, M. Integration of cognitive and motivational context information in the primate prefrontal cortex. Cereb. Cortex 17 (suppl. 1), i101–i109 (2007).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Wise, S.P. & Murray, E.A. Arbitrary associations between antecedents and actions. Trends Neurosci. 23, 271–276 (2000).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Genovesio, A., Brasted, P.J. & Wise, S.P. Representation of future and previous spatial goals by separate neural populations in prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 26, 7305–7316 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Mushiake, H., Saito, N., Sakamoto, K., Itoyama, Y. & Tanji, J. Activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex reflects multiple steps of future events in action plans. Neuron 50, 631–641 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Saito, N., Mushiake, H., Sakamoto, K., Itoyama, Y. & Tanji, J. Representation of immediate and final behavioral goals in the monkey prefrontal cortex during an instructed delay period. Cereb. Cortex 15, 1535–1546 (2005).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Averbeck, B.B., Sohn, J.W. & Lee, D. Activity in prefrontal cortex during dynamic selection of action sequences. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 276–282 (2006).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Funded by the UK Medical Research Council.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Experimental Psychology and Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3UD, UK

    Matthew F S Rushworth & Timothy E J Behrens

Authors
  1. Matthew F S Rushworth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Timothy E J Behrens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Matthew F S Rushworth or Timothy E J Behrens.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rushworth, M., Behrens, T. Choice, uncertainty and value in prefrontal and cingulate cortex. Nat Neurosci 11, 389–397 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1038/nn2066

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nn2066

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing