Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Article
  • Published:

Mouthing activity data for children age 3 to <6 years old and fraction of hand area mouthed for children age <6 years old in Taiwan

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume 28, pages 182–192 (2018)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Non-dietary ingestion is an important exposure pathway for children owing to their frequent hand-to-mouth and object-to-mouth activities involving soil and dust contacts. We used videotaping and the computer-based translating methods to quantify the mouthing activity information for 24 children ages 3 to <6 years old living in Taiwan. We also reviewed the entire mouthing activity data collected during the project to determine the lesser studied information on hand surface areas mouthed by children ages <6 years old. The median indoor hand-to-mouth and object-to-mouth frequencies were found to be 10 and 4.3 contacts/h, respectively. Hand-to-mouth and object-to-mouth contact frequencies used in exposure assessments for children ages 3 to <6 years old in this study were similar to the recommended values reported in United States. Exposure Factors Handbook for comparable age US children. The average fractions of the hand area mouthed for children 6 to <12 months, 1 to <2 years, 2 to <3 years, and 3 to <6 years old were 0.12, 0.12, 0.13, and 0.09, respectively. The fraction of hand area mouthed by children was found to be significantly and negatively correlated with their age. About half of the total hand-to-mouth contact events involved immersion of part of a hand or a finger into the mouth. The findings from this study extend the available mouthing activity information for 3 to <6 years old children and also provide new data for an Asian country, allowing comparison of results with western values collected mostly in the United States.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Chen JQ, Wang ZX, Wu X, Zhu JJ, Zhou WB . Source and hazard identification of heavy metals in soils of Changsha based on TIN model and direct exposure method. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China 2011; 21: 642–651.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Ebbs S, Hatfield S, Nagarajan V, Blaylock M . A comparison of the dietary arsenic exposures from ingestion of contaminated soil and hyperaccumulating Pteris ferns used in a residential phytoremediation project. Int J Phytoremediation 2010; 12: 121–132.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Lin Y, Fang F, Wang F, Xu M . Pollution distribution and health risk assessment of heavy metals in indoor dust in Anhui rural, China. Environ Monit Assess 2015; 187: 565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Lu X, Wu X, Wang Y, Chen H, Gao P, Fu Y . Risk assessment of toxic metals in street dust from a medium-sized industrial city of China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2014; 106: 154–163.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Wang Z, Chai L, Yang Z, Wang Y, Wang H . Identifying sources and assessing potential risk of heavy metals in soils from direct exposure to children in a mine-impacted city, Changsha, China. J Environ Qual 2010; 39: 1616–1623.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Zhang DY, Pan XL, Lee DJ . Potentially harmful metals and metalloids in the urban street dusts of Taipei City. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2014; 45: 1727–1732.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Beamer PI, Canales RA, Ferguson AC, Leckie JO, Bradman A . Relative pesticide and exposure route contribution to aggregate and cumulative dose in young farmworker children. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2012; 9: 73–96.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Ogbeide O, Tongo I, Ezemonye L . Assessing the distribution and human health risk of organochlorine pesticide residues in sediments from selected rivers. Chemosphere 2016; 144: 1319–1326.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Zartarian V, Xue J, Glen G, Smith L, Tulve N, Tornero-Velez R . Quantifying children's aggregate (dietary and residential) exposure and dose to permethrin: application and evaluation of EPA's probabilistic SHEDS-Multimedia model. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2012; 22: 267–273.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Huang YM, Chen LG, Xu ZC, Peng XC, Wen LJ, Zhang SK et al. Preliminary study of PBDE levels in house dust and human exposure to PBDEs via dust ingestion. Huan Jing Ke Xue 2010; 31: 168–172.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Lim YW, Kim HH, Lee CS, Shin DC, Chang YS, Yang JY . Exposure assessment and health risk of poly-brominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants in the indoor environment of elementary school students in Korea. Sci Total Environ 2014; 470-471: 1376–1389.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Wang W, Zheng JS, Chan CY, Huang MJ, Cheung KC, Wong MH . Health risk assessment of exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) contained in residential air particulate and dust in Guangzhou and Hong Kong. Atmos Environ 2014; 89: 786–796.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Zhu NZ, Liu LY, Ma WL, Li WL, Song WW, Qi H et al. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the indoor dust in China: levels, spatial distribution and human exposure. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2015; 111: 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Qi H, Li WL, Liu LY, Zhang ZF, Zhu NZ, Song WW et al. Levels, distribution and human exposure of new non-BDE brominated flame retardants in the indoor dust of China. Environ Pollut 2014; 195: 1–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Mercier F, Glorennec P, Thomas O, Le Bot B . Organic contamination of settled house dust, a review for exposure assessment purposes. Environ Sci Technol 2011; 45: 6716–6727.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Beamer P, Key ME, Ferguson AC, Canales RA, Auyeung W, Leckie JO . Quantified activity pattern data from 6 to 27-month-old farmworker children for use in exposure assessment. Environ Res 2008; 108: 239–246.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Beamer PI, Luik CE, Canales RA, Leckie JO . Quantified outdoor micro-activity data for children aged 7-12-years old. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2012; 22: 82–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Black K, Shalat SL, Freeman NC, Jimenez M, Donnelly KC, Calvin JA . Children's mouthing and food-handling behavior in an agricultural community on the US/Mexico border. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2005; 15: 244–251.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Freeman NC, Jimenez M, Reed KJ, Gurunathan S, Edwards RD, Roy A et al. Quantitative analysis of children's microactivity patterns: the Minnesota Children's Pesticide Exposure Study. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2001; 11: 501–509.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Groot ME, Lekkerkerk MC, Steenbekkers LPA . Mouthing behaviour of young children: an observational study, Agricultural University Wageningen, Household and Consumer Studies1998.

  21. Tulve NS, Suggs JC, McCurdy T, Cohen Hubal EA, Moya J . Frequency of mouthing behavior in young children. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2002; 12: 259–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Xue J, Zartarian V, Moya J, Freeman N, Beamer P, Black K et al. A meta-analysis of children's hand-to-mouth frequency data for estimating nondietary ingestion exposure. Risk Anal 2007; 27: 411–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Xue J, Zartarian V, Tulve N, Moya J, Freeman N, Auyeung W et al. A meta-analysis of children's object-to-mouth frequency data for estimating non-dietary ingestion exposure. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2010; 20: 536–545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Tsou MC, Ozkaynak H, Beamer P, Dang W, Hsi HC, Jiang CB et al. Mouthing activity data for children aged 7 to 35 months in Taiwan. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2015; 25: 388–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Auyeung W, Canales RA, Beamer P, Ferguson AC, Leckie JO . Young children's hand contact activities: an observational study via videotaping in primarily outdoor residential settings. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2006; 16: 434–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. AuYeung W, Canales RA, Beamer P, Ferguson AC, Leckie JO . Young children's mouthing behavior: an observational study via videotaping in a primarily outdoor residential setting. J Child Health 2004; 2: 271–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Juberg DR, Alfano K, Coughlin RJ, Thompson KM . An observational study of object mouthing behavior by young children. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 135–142.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Reed KJ, Jimenez M, Freeman NC, Lioy PJ . Quantification of children's hand and mouthing activities through a videotaping methodology. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1999; 9: 513–520.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Smith SA, Norris B . Reducing the risk of choking hazards: mouthing behaviour of children aged 1 month to 5 years. Inj Control Saf Promot 2003; 10: 145–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Zartarian VG, Ferguson AC, Leckie JO . Quantified dermal activity data from a four-child pilot field study. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1997; 7: 543–552.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Zartarian VG, Ferguson AC, Leckie JO . Quantified mouthing activity data from a four-child pilot field study. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1998; 8: 543–553.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Zartarian VG, Streicker J, Rivera A, Cornejo CS, Molina S, Valadez OF et al. A pilot study to collect micro-activity data of two- to four-year-old farm labor children in Salinas Valley, California. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1995; 5: 21–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Beamer PI, Plotkin KR, Gerba CP, Sifuentes LY, Koenig DW, Reynolds KA . Modeling of human viruses on hands and risk of infection in an office workplace using micro-activity data. J Occup Environ Hyg 2015; 12: 266–275.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Julian TR, Canales RA, Leckie JO, Boehm AB . A model of exposure to rotavirus from nondietary ingestion iterated by simulated intermittent contacts. Risk Anal 2009; 29: 617–632.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Nicas M, Best D . A study quantifying the hand-to-face contact rate and its potential application to predicting respiratory tract infection. J Occup Environ Hyg 2008; 5: 347–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Özkaynak H, Xue J, Zartarian VG, Glen G, Smith L . Modeled estimates of soil and dust ingestion rates for children. Risk Anal 2011; 31: 592–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Stapleton HM, Kelly SM, Allen JG, McClean MD, Webster TF . Measurement of polybrominated diphenyl ethers on hand wipes: estimating exposure from hand-to-mouth contact. Environ Sci Technol 2008; 42: 3329–3334.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Tulve NS, Egeghy PP, Fortmann RC, Xue J, Evans J, Whitaker DA et al. Methodologies for estimating cumulative human exposures to current-use pyrethroid pesticides. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2011; 21: 317–327.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. WTCWC World Trade Center Indoor Environment Assessment: Selecting Contaminants of Potential Concern and Setting Health-Based Benchmarks (Revised Report) 2003. Prepared by the Contaminants of Potential Concern (COPC) Committee of the World Trade Center Indoor Air Task Force Working Group: New York, NY, USA.

  40. Zartarian VG, Xue J, Özkaynak H, Dang W, Glen G, Smith L et al. A probabilistic arsenic exposure assessment for children who contact CCA-treated playsets and decks, Part 1: Model methodology, variability results, and model evaluation. Risk Anal 2006; 26: 515–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Kuusisto S, Lindroos O, Rantio T, Priha E, Tuhkanen T . PCB contaminated dust on indoor surfaces—health risks and acceptable surface concentrations in residential and occupational settings. Chemosphere 2007; 67: 1194–1201.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Wilson R, Jones-Otazo H, Petrovic S, Mitchell I, Bonvalot Y, Williams D et al. Revisiting dust and soil Ingestion Rates Based on Hand-to-Mouth Transfer. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 2013; 19: 158–188.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Xue J, Zartarian VG, Ozkaynak H, Dang W, Glen G, Smith L et al. A probabilistic arsenic exposure assessment for children who contact chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated playsets and decks, Part 2: Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses. Risk Anal 2006; 26: 533–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Zartarian VG, Xue J, Özkaynak HA, Dang W, Glen G, Smith L et al A Probabilistic Exposure Assessment for Children Who Contact CCA-treated Playsets and Decks Using the Stochastic Human Exposure and Dose Simulation Model for the Wood Preservative Scenario (SHEDS-WOOD), Final Report2005Washington, DC: US EPA, EPA/600/X-05/009.

  45. Zartarian VG, Ferguson AC, Ong CG, Leckie JO . Quantifying videotaped activity patterns: video translation software and training methodologies. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1997; 7: 535–542.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Leckie JO, Naylor KA, Canales RA, Ferguson AC, Cabrera NL, Hurtado AL et al Quantifying children's microlevel activity data from existing videotapes, 2000 Report by Exposure Research Group, Stanford University for US EPA, U2F112OTRT-99-001182.

  47. EPA US Guidance on selecting age groups for monitoring and assessing childhood exposures to environmental contaminants 2005. Washington, DC, USA: EPA, EPA/630/P-03/003F.

  48. Firestone M, Moya J, Cohen-Hubal E, Zartarian V, Xue J . Identifying childhood age groups for exposure assessments and monitoring. Risk Anal 2007; 27: 701–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS) The Survey of Family Income and Expenditure, 2014. 2015. Taipei, Taiwan: DGBAS, websitehttp://win.dgbas.gov.tw/fies/doc/result/103.pdf.

  50. EPA US. Exposure Factors Handbook 2011 Edition (Final), 2011Washington, DC, USA. EPA, EPA/600/R-09/052F.

Download references

Acknowledgements

This project was supported by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (project numbers: EPA-100-G101-03-A036, EPA-101-GA101-02-A143, and EPA-102-GA11-03-A134). The work reported here was performed under the auspices of a long-standing Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Taiwan and the Unites States Environmental Protection Agencies. We would like the acknowledge the EPA/NERL researchers Drs. Karen Bradham and Jianping Xue and Dr. Jackie Moya (EPA/NCEA) for their valuable contributions to our collaborative research on soil and dust ingestion rates for children living in Taiwan. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments and constructive criticisms on the original manuscript. We would like to thank Professor Colin Ong from Stanford University for providing us the Virtual Timing Device software. Source of grant: This project was conducted under the auspices of the existing Memorandum of Agreement (MOU) between the Taiwan and the US Environmental Protection Agencies. It has been supported by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (project number: EPA-100-G101-03-A036, EPA-101-GA101-02-A143, and EPA-102-GA11-03-A134).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Health, College of Public Health and Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan

    Ming-Chien Tsou, Winston Dang & Ling-Chu Chien

  2. School of Public Health, College of Public Health, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan

    Ming-Chien Tsou, Winston Dang & Ling-Chu Chien

  3. Consultant, Carrboro, NC, USA

    Halûk Özkaynak

  4. Environmental Health Sciences, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

    Paloma Beamer

  5. Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan,

    Hsing-Cheng Hsi

  6. Department of Pediatrics, Taipei Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan

    Chuen-Bin Jiang

  7. Mackay Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Taipei, Taiwan

    Chuen-Bin Jiang

Authors
  1. Ming-Chien Tsou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Halûk Özkaynak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Paloma Beamer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Winston Dang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Hsing-Cheng Hsi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Chuen-Bin Jiang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Ling-Chu Chien
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ling-Chu Chien.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Supplementary Information accompanies the paper on the Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology website

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Tsou, MC., Özkaynak, H., Beamer, P. et al. Mouthing activity data for children age 3 to <6 years old and fraction of hand area mouthed for children age <6 years old in Taiwan. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 28, 182–192 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2016.87

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2016.87

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links