1. ¹Digestive Disease Research Center, Medical Sciences/University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2. ²Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
3. ³Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
4. ⁴International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
5. ⁵Golestan Research Center of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Gorgan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran

Correspondence: Professor R Malekzadeh, Digestive Disease Research Center, Shriati Hospital, Medical Sciences/University of Tehran, Kargar Street, Tehran 14117, Iran. E-mail: malek@ams.ac.ir; Dr F Kamangar, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), 6120 Executive Blvd, Room 3034, Bethesda, MD 20892-7232, USA. E-mail: kamangaf@mail.nih.gov

Received 25 February 2008; Revised 28 March 2008; Accepted 2 April 2008; Published online 13 May 2008.

Abstract

The very high incidence of oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) in Golestan Province in northeastern Iran was suggested by studies in the 1970s as partly due to opium use, which is not uncommon in this area, but based on limited numbers. From December 2003 to June 2007, we administered a validated structured questionnaire to 300 ESCC cases and 571 controls, matched on neighbourhood of residence, age (2 years), and sex. We used conditional logistic regression models to calculate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) adjusted for potential confounders. Compared with those who used neither tobacco nor opium, risk of ESCC was increased in those who used tobacco only (OR, 95% CI: 1.70, 1.05–2.73), in those who used opium only (2.12, 1.21–3.74), and in those who used both tobacco and opium (2.35, 1.50–3.67). All forms of tobacco use (cigarettes, hookah, and nass) were associated with higher ESCC risk. Similarly, use of both crude opium and other forms of opium were associated with higher risk. Alcohol consumption was seen in only 2% of the cases and 2% of the controls, and was not associated with ESCC risk.