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The mechanisms that govern the growth of debris flows are largely unclear, hampering efforts to assess natural hazards in landslide-prone areas. Experiments suggest that high bed-water content increases flow velocity and mass entrainment in landslides.
The origin of water in the Earth–Moon system is an open question. Geochemical analysis of the rocks retrieved by the Apollo missions show that lunar and terrestrial water are isotopically distinct, suggesting acquisition after the Moon's formation.
The contribution of glaciers and ice caps to global sea-level rise is uncertain: they are incompletely counted and the calculation is challenging. A new estimate from the best available data suggests a contribution of about 12 cm by 2100.
Continental crust is less dense than that of the oceans, and less likely to sink into the mantle. Nevertheless, an analysis of a high-pressure rock from the Swiss Alps suggests that more than one cycle of crustal sinking and return is possible.
How the giant sediment-hosted gold deposits of Nevada were formed is disputed. A model linking regional tectonics with magma emplacement and fluid generation at depth suggests that these deposits result from an optimal coincidence of processes.
