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  • Review Article
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Environmental impacts and remediation of dye-containing wastewater

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment volume 4, pages 785–803 (2023)Cite this article

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Abstract

Synthetic dyes are used in various industries including textile processing, food production and the pharmaceutical sector. Yet, approximately 80% of the dye-containing wastewaters produced are often released untreated into waterways or used directly for irrigation, causing detrimental impacts on human health and ecosystems. In this Review, we discuss the environmental impact of dye-containing wastewater and explore the chemical, biological and physical mitigation strategies used to treat and decontaminate dye-containing wastewaters. Untreated synthetic dyes cause coloration of receiving water bodies, hindering the degree of visible light reaching the photic ozone, and have carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic properties that have toxic impacts on plants, animals and humans. Chemical treatment methods such as coagulation are the most widely adopted treatment methods; however, they require careful sludge management to be effective. Biological degradation, involving the implementation of enzymes, microorganisms and plants, is an environmentally friendly and energy-efficient approach for dye degradation, but it requires lengthy reaction times and the use of selective bio-organisms for target dyes. Advanced membrane-based physical separation can achieve effective removal of dyes and inorganic salts from highly saline dye-containing wastewater, while also enabling their recovery and reuse. Strengthened regulatory requirements and development of non-toxic dyes are required in conjunction with these remediation treatments to effectively mitigate dye-related pollution.

Key points

  • Untreated synthetic dyes released into aquatic environments reduce the light available for photosynthesis by primary producers, with consequential impacts for the whole food chain. In addition, dyes are also directly harmful to plants, animals and humans, with human health implications including increasing allergy and cancer risk.

  • Chemical coagulation and electro-coagulation are widely adopted methods of dye removal. However, coagulant efficacy and sludge management are crucial for efficient removal of dyes.

  • Advanced oxidation processes, which encompass chemically mediated advanced oxidation processes, photocatalysis and electrocatalysis, have been proven effective at dye degradation. To ensure these methods are sustainable and safe, it is crucial to minimize chemical and energy consumption and monitor and manage the toxic by-products that can be generated during the process.

  • Biological degradation is an eco-friendly and energy-efficient method for dye removal through the utilization of enzymes, microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, yeast and algae) and plants, but these methods require a long reaction time, owing to slow kinetics during dye degradation.

  • Emerging membrane-based physical separation techniques, including tight ultrafiltration, loose nanofiltration and electro-driven nanofiltration, show a great potential in fractionation of dyes and salts from highly saline dye-containing wastewater. These methods also enable efficient recovery of dyes and salts to promote a circular economy in the textile sector.

  • To achieve sustainable and safe synthetic dye use, these advanced remediation technologies must be implemented in combination with proper regulation of dye-containing wastewater discharge in collaboration between governing bodies and industry stakeholders.

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Fig. 1: Environmental impacts of dye-containing wastewater.
Fig. 2: Chemical remediation for dye-containing wastewater by coagulation.
Fig. 3: Dye removal by advanced oxidation processes.
Fig. 4: Biological remediation of dye-containing wastewater.
Fig. 5: Physical adsorption mechanisms of dye removal for conventional remediation of dye-containing wastewater.
Fig. 6: Dye removal by conventional membrane separation processes.

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Acknowledgements

Y.W. appreciates financial support from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFC3201400). M.X. thanks the support from the Royal Society (IEC\NSFC\211021), the Royal Academy of Engineering (IF2223B-104) and the Leverhulme Trust (RPG-2022-177). D.H.S. acknowledges the support of Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea (No. 20224000000100) and the research support from the Korea Institute of Energy Technology. J. Lin would like to thank Q. Liang and G. Hu from Ganjiang Innovation Academy, Chinese Academy of Sciences (China), for their discussion on electrocatalysis.

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  1. These authors contributed equally: Jiuyang Lin, Wenyuan Ye, Ming Xie.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Key Laboratory of Rare Earths, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ganzhou, China

    Jiuyang Lin & Yinhua Wan

  2. Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Cleaner Production of Rare Earths, Ganzhou, China

    Jiuyang Lin & Yinhua Wan

  3. Ganjiang Innovation Academy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ganzhou, China

    Jiuyang Lin & Yinhua Wan

  4. Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil Environmental Health and Regulation, College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China

    Wenyuan Ye

  5. Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, UK

    Ming Xie

  6. Institute of Energy Materials & Devices, Korea Institute of Energy Technology (KENTECH), Naju, Republic of Korea

    Dong Han Seo

  7. State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Jianquan Luo

  8. Process Engineering for Sustainable Systems (ProcESS), Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

    Bart Van der Bruggen

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Contributions

J. Lin, W.Y. and M.X. contributed equally to all aspects of the article. J. Lin, W.Y., M.X., Y.W. and B.V.B. researched data for this review. J. Lin, W.Y., M.X., Y.W. and B.V.B. made a substantial contribution to the discussion of content. J. Lin, W.Y., M.X., Y.W. and B.V.B. contributed to the writing and figure drafting of the review. J. Lin, W.Y., M.X., D.H.S., J. Luo, Y.W. and B.V.B. reviewed and edited the manuscript before submission.

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Glossary

Biochar

A microporous carbon-rich material that is produced by pyrolysis of biomass wastes in the absence of oxygen.

Chromosomal aberrations

Mutations in chromosome structure or number.

Co-deposition

The simultaneous or combined deposition of multiple substances or materials onto a surface.

Constructed wetlands

(CWs). Engineered artificial systems designed to simulate natural wetlands for wastewater treatment.

Covalent stack

Arrangement of atoms within the material, particularly in the vertical direction.

Extracellular polymeric substances

Natural polymers of high molecular weight secreted by microorganisms, which are mainly composed of polysaccharides, proteins, extracellular DNA and lipids.

Halophytes

Salt-tolerant plants that can grow in the highly saline aqueous environment.

Metal organic frameworks

(MOFs). Coordination networks with organic ligands containing potential voids.

Michael addition

A chemical reaction in which a molecule with a double bond between a carbon atom and an oxygen atom (a carbonyl group) reacts with a nucleophile to form a new chemical bond.

Molecular weight cut-offs

(MWCOs). Molecular weight of non-charged organic compounds that is rejected by the membrane at the level of 90%.

Phytotoxicity

Toxic effect of synthetic dyes that inhibits seed germination and/or plant growth.

Polymer of intrinsic microporosity

A continuous polymeric network of interconnected intermolecular voids.

Schiff base reaction

A chemical reaction in which a primary amine (a compound containing an –NH2 group) reacts with a carbonyl compound, typically an aldehyde or a ketone, to produce a Schiff base.

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Lin, J., Ye, W., Xie, M. et al. Environmental impacts and remediation of dye-containing wastewater. Nat Rev Earth Environ 4, 785–803 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-023-00489-8

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