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  • Review Article
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The build-up and triggers of volcanic eruptions

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment volume 2, pages 458–476 (2021)Cite this article

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Abstract

More than 800 million people live in proximity to active volcanoes and could be directly impacted by potential eruptions. Mitigation of future volcanic hazards requires adequate warning of a pending eruption, which, in turn, requires detailed understanding of the fundamental processes driving volcanic activity. In this Review, we discuss the processes leading up to volcanic eruptions, by following the journey of magma from crustal storage zones to the surface. Magma reservoirs can feed volcanic eruptions if they contain sufficiently hot and mobile magma and are able to supply sufficient energy for the magma to reach the surface. Young volcanic plumbing systems favour volcanic activity, whereas storage becomes more likely in mature volcanic systems with large reservoirs (hundreds of cubic kilometres). Anticipating volcanic activity requires a multidisciplinary approach, as real-time monitoring and geophysical surveys must be combined with petrology and the eruptive history to understand the temporal evolution of volcanic systems over geological timescales. Numerical modelling serves to link different observational timescales, and the inversion of data sets with physics-based statistical approaches is a promising way forward to advance our understanding of the processes controlling recurrence rate and magnitude of volcanic eruptions.

Key points

  • The thermal evolution of magmatic systems influences the physical properties of magma and the rocks surrounding the volcanic plumbing system, which, over the long term, favours magma storage over eruption.

  • Magma recharge is the primary driver of magma reservoir pressurization and destabilization. Second boiling can trigger reservoir failure, although it is less likely to cause repeated eruptions.

  • Only when volcanoes are in a critical state (close to eruption), small variations of stress or rock strength caused by external phenomena can help to initiate a volcanic eruption.

  • Magma can become arrested on its way to the Earth’s surface because a lack of pressure or insufficient volume do not allow the magma to overcome stress barriers.

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Fig. 1: Volcanic plumbing system.
Fig. 2: Relationships between temperature and magma properties and their temporal evolution.
Fig. 3: Conditions required for volcanic eruptions.
Fig. 4: A summary of stress and pressure scales for different Earth processes.
Fig. 5: Pathways of dikes through the shallow crust.

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Acknowledgements

L.C. received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant no. 677493 - FEVER) and additional support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant no. 200021_184632). E.R. received funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG – German Research Foundation; grant no. 634756). A.N. was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) grant KAKENHI 17KK0092. We are grateful to Andrew Harp for sharing his version of the Summer Coon dike map with us.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

    Luca Caricchi

  2. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

    Meredith Townsend

  3. GeoForschungsZentrum, Potsdam, Germany

    Eleonora Rivalta

  4. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

    Eleonora Rivalta

  5. Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

    Atsuko Namiki

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Contributions

L.C. focused on the thermal evolution of magmatic systems and interaction between magmatic fluids and magma; M.T. took the lead on the discussion of the processes of magma reservoir pressurization; A.N. led the sections on internal and external triggers; and E.R. led the sections on magma transfer through the crust. All authors contributed equally to the remaining sections of the manuscript and edited the final version.

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Correspondence to Luca Caricchi.

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Nature Reviews Earth & Environment thanks F. Costa, M. Cassidy and A. Clarke for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Glossary

Phreatic eruptions

The explosive vaporization of rapidly heated fluids.

Overpressure

Pressure in excess of the lithostatic pressure.

Fluid flushing

The percolation and chemical interaction between externally sourced magmatic fluids and magma, sometimes also referred to as fluid fluxing.

Exsolved (or excess) volatiles

Volatile phases such as H2O and CO2 stored in bubbles suspended in the magma.

Magma compressibility

A measure of the relative decrease of magma volume in response to an increase of pressure.

Solidus temperature

Minimum temperature at which a melt phase can coexist with crystals in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Second boiling

Volatile exsolution that occurs as a result of the increased concentration of water in silicate melt during crystallization.

Inclined sheets

Steeply dipping tabular or gently curved intrusions.

Cone sheets

Arcuate intrusions with a geometry like the segment of a downward-pointing cone.

Ring dikes

Arcuate or circular intrusions associated with caldera ring faults.

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Caricchi, L., Townsend, M., Rivalta, E. et al. The build-up and triggers of volcanic eruptions. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2, 458–476 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00174-8

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