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Anomalies in particle physics and their implications for physics beyond the standard model

Nature Reviews Physics (2024)Cite this article

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Abstract

The standard model (SM) of particle physics is the mathematical description of the fundamental constituents and interactions of matter. Its last missing particle, the Higgs boson, was observed in 2012. However, there are several phenomena that the SM cannot account for (such as dark-matter particles, or non-vanishing neutrino masses), neither does it describe gravity. There must be more to discover, to extend the SM into a full description of nature. Here we review the hints of new physics, called anomalies, that are seen for various interactions as discrepancies between standard-model predictions and experimental measurements. We consider both direct high-energy searches for new particles at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN and indirect low-energy precision experiments. These anomalies span an energy scale of more than four orders of magnitude: from the mass of the proton, to the electroweak scale (approximately the mass of the Higgs boson), to the teraelectronvolt scale, which is the highest scale directly accessible at the Large Hadron Collider. We discuss the experimental and theoretical status of various anomalies and summarize possible explanations in terms of new particles and new interactions as well as discovery prospects. We suggest, in particular, that new additional Higgs bosons and so-called leptoquarks are promising candidates for extending the standard model.

Key points

  • The standard model (SM) of particle physics describes the fundamental constituents of matter and their interactions and was completed with the discovery of the Higgs particle at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in 2012.

  • The SM cannot account for the existence of dark matter or for non-vanishing neutrino masses and must therefore be extended, but there is a plethora of viable options for this extension.

  • In experiments, several interesting deviations from the standard-model predictions have been found. These anomalies appear both in high-energy searches at the LHC and in low-energy precision observables: ranging from precision measurements of properties of the muon, to hints for new scalar bosons at the electroweak scale, to the existence of heavy teraelectronvolt-scale resonances.

  • The anomalies can be explained by supplementing the SM with new particles and new interactions — in particular, additional Higgs bosons, new fermions and new strongly interacting particles.

  • Data accumulating from the third run of the LHC could establish the existence of some of these new particles, if one or more of the anomalies are indeed driven by new physics. The high-luminosity upgrade of the LHC, future linear or circular colliders and new precision experiments will be needed for a comprehensive study of the properties of particles.

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Fig. 1: Feynman diagrams showing some of the processes in which anomalies are observed.
Fig. 2: Compilation of various anomalies ordered according to the energy scale at which they appear.
Fig. 3: Implications of anomalies for extending the standard model with new particles.

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Acknowledgements

The work of A.C. is supported by a professorship grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation (No. PP00P2_211002). B.M. gratefully acknowledges the South African Department of Science and Innovation through the SA-CERN programme, the National Research Foundation and the Research Office of the University of the Witwatersrand for various forms of support. The authors thank W. Murray for pointing to excess in the Zhh final state and L. Donaldson for assistance with the prospects of investigating the X17 anomaly.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Physik-Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland

    Andreas Crivellin

  2. Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland

    Andreas Crivellin

  3. School of Physics and Institute for Collider Particle Physics, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Wits, South Africa

    Bruce Mellado

  4. iThemba LABS, National Research Foundation, Somerset West, South Africa

    Bruce Mellado

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The main part of the writing was done by A.C.; B.M. contributed to sections on the definition of anomalies, multilepton anomalies, the X17 excess, the di-di-jet excesses and the Higgs-like signals.

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Crivellin, A., Mellado, B. Anomalies in particle physics and their implications for physics beyond the standard model. Nat Rev Phys (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42254-024-00703-6

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