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Atmospheric and oceanic circulation altered by global mean sea-level rise

Nature Geoscience (2023)Cite this article

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Abstract

Over recent decades, the rate of global mean sea-level rise has increased, although the magnitude—tens of centimetres—remains small from a geological perspective. Such a modest rise in sea level presents a challenge when attempting to assess its global climate impacts, as the signal is weak. However, in previous warmer geological periods, sea levels reached up to tens of metres higher than the present levels. These palaeoclimate periods offer a unique opportunity to investigate the climate effects of higher sea levels. Here, using climate simulations of the Last Interglacial period and a set of present-day sea-level sensitivity experiments, we highlight the importance of global mean sea-level rise in modulating global climate. The lowering of terrestrial elevation and deepening of oceanic bathymetry due to a spatially uniform rise in sea level reorganizes atmospheric and oceanic circulations. Our simulations of the Last Interglacial show that considering this aspect of global mean sea-level rise in isolation from changes associated with land–sea masks or freshwater input reduces the long-lasting model–data mismatch in the Southern Hemisphere. Furthermore, the present-day sensitivity experiments demonstrate that a slight increase in global mean sea level causes substantial adjustments in the global climate, particularly at mid–high latitudes.

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Fig. 1: Comparison between simulated last interglacial annual surface temperature and reconstructions.
Fig. 2: Surface temperature changes due to global mean sea-level rise in present-day sensitivity experiments.
Fig. 3: Impacts of global mean sea-level rise in present-day sensitivity experiments.
Fig. 4: Simulated surface ocean currents and salinity at the North Pole.

Data availability

The temperature results from the sea-level experiments are publicly available on Zenodo (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7365287). The annual mean atmosphere and ocean results are publicly available on Zenodo (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7650523). More model output can be provided upon request. In addition, the LIG SST reconstructions are available in ref. 36.

Code availability

The NorESM code is available on GitHub (https://github.com/NorESMhub/NorESM).

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Acknowledgements

This study was jointly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants nos. 41888101 and 42125502), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant no. 2018YFA0605602), the SapienCE (project no. 262618) and other projects (projects nos. 314371, 229819 and 221712) from the Norwegian Research Council, as well as the computing resources from Notur/Norstore projects NN9133/NS9133, NN9486/NS9486 and NN9874/NS9874.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Atmospheric Science, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China

    Zhongshi Zhang, Caoyi Dong & Xijin Wang

  2. School of Geographic Science, Nantong University, Nantong, China

    Zhongshi Zhang

  3. Centre for Severe Weather and Climate and Hydro-geological Hazards, Wuhan, China

    Zhongshi Zhang, Caoyi Dong & Xijin Wang

  4. Department of Earth Science, Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

    Eystein Jansen

  5. NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, Bergen, Norway

    Eystein Jansen, Stefan Pieter Sobolowski, Odd Helge Otterå, Chuncheng Guo, Aleksi Nummelin & Mats Bentsen

  6. Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

    Eystein Jansen, Stefan Pieter Sobolowski & Odd Helge Otterå

  7. Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, LSCE/IPSL, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

    Gilles Ramstein

  8. Key Laboratory of Meteorological Disaster/Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, China

    Huijun Wang

  9. Key Laboratory of Cenozoic Geology and Environment, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Zhengtang Guo

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Contributions

Z.Z. designed and performed the simulations and wrote the draft of the paper. S.P.S. and O.H.O. contributed to the analyses of atmosphere dynamics, and C.G., A.N. and M.B. contributed to investigations into ocean dynamics. E.J., G.R., H.W. and Z.G. helped strengthen the palaeo and future climate link. C.D. and X.W. prepared some figures. All authors contributed to discussing the results and writing the paper.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zhongshi Zhang.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Nature Geoscience thanks Daniel Lunt and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Primary Handling Editor: Tom Richardson, in collaboration with the Nature Geoscience team.

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Extended data

Extended Data Fig. 1 Comparison between last interglacial simulations with reconstructions36 at sites.

The blue dots and boxes show the simulated annual mean surface air temperature (SAT, in °C) or sea surface temperature (SST, in °C) anomalies (at data sites and the range) without the global mean sea-level (GMSL) rise. The red dots and boxes show the simulated annual mean SAT/SST anomalies (at data sites and the range) with the GMSL rise. The last interglacial (LIG) sensitivity experiments show strong warming between 60°S and 70°S when the GMSL rises. While most sites used in the reconstruction are located between 40°S and 50°S, complicating direct comparison. The LIG experiments demonstrate that the model–data mismatch is reduced by considering the GMSL rise. Without the GMSL rise, the root mean square error (RMSE) between the simulated SAT (SST) and the reconstruction is 2.83 (2.85). When the GMSL rise is 5 m (10 m), the RMSE between the simulated SAT and the reconstruction becomes 2.48 (2.50), and the RMSE is 2.56 (2.58) between the simulated SST and the reconstructions. The box and whisker show the range of simulated surface temperature change at 17 sites, with the maximum, the 75% percentile, the mean, the 25% percentile, and the minimum value from top to bottom.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Comparison between last interglacial and present-day experiments.

(a) and (b) show the surface pressure changes (in Pa) due to the global mean sea-level rise of 10 m. (c) and (d) plot the sea-level surface pressure changes (in Pa). (e) and (f) illustrate the 850hPa winds anomalies (in unit m/s). (g) and (h) display the anomalies in surface air temperature (SAT, in °C). Only significant differences with a confidence level higher than 95% (t-test) are shaded. The grey and blue contours highlight pressure changes with a spacing of 40 Pa in (a), (b), (c), and (d). In (e) and (f), the arrows plot the changes in winds, and the blue-filled contours show the changes in wind speed with a confidence level higher than 95% (t-test). The supplementary information presents detailed explanations for this figure.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Comparison in ocean heat transport between last interglacial and present-day experiments.

(a) shows the changes in global ocean heat transport (OHT, in PW) between the lig126sl5m and the lig126 experiment (green), between the lig126sl10m and the lig126 experiment (red), between the co2400sl5m and the co2400 experiment (blue), and between the co2400sl10m and the co2400 experiment (black). The solid (dash) lines indicate the significant (insignificant) changes higher (lower) than a 95% confidence level (t-test). (b) and (c) as in (a), but for the Atlantic and the Indian and Pacific, respectively.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Comparison in meridional ocean circulations between last interglacial and present-day experiments.

(a) shows the stream function (in Sv) of Atlantic meridional ocean circulation (AMOC) for the lig126sl5m (filled colors and black contours) and the lig126 experiment (red and blue contours). The contours display stream function with a spacing of 4 Sv. (b) plots the differences in AMOC between the lig126sl5m and the lig126 experiment. (c) and (d) show the AMOC comparison between the lig126sl10m and the lig126 experiment. (e) to (h) plot the comparison for the co2400, co2400sl5m, and co2400sl10m experiments.

Extended Data Fig. 5 Surface pressure changes due to global mean sea-level rise in present-day sensitivity experiments.

(a) shows the comparison between the co2400sl0.625 m and the co2400 experiment, the response of annual surface pressure (in Pa) to the sea-level rise of 0.625 m. (b) to (f) as in (a), but the sea-level rise is 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 m, respectively. Only the significant differences with a confidence level higher than 95% (t-test) appear in the filled contours. The grey contours highlight pressure changes with a spacing of 40 Pa.

Extended Data Fig. 6 Near-surface wind changes due to global mean sea-level rise in present-day sensitivity experiments.

(a) shows the comparison between the co2400sl0.625 m and the co2400 experiment, the response of 850hPa winds (in m/s) to the sea-level rise of 0.625 m. (b) to (f) as in (a), but the sea-level rise is 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 m, respectively. The arrows plot the changes in winds, and the blue-filled contours show the changes in wind speed with a confidence level higher than 95% (t-test).

Extended Data Fig. 7 Mixed layer depth changes due to global mean sea-level rise in present-day sensitivity experiments.

(a) shows the comparison between the co2400sl0.625 m and the co2400 experiment, the response of mixed layer depth (in m) to the sea-level rise of 0.625 m. (b) to (f) as in (a), but the sea-level rise is 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 m, respectively. Only the significant differences with a confidence level higher than 95% (t-test) appear in the filled contours. The black outlines highlight the changes with a contour spacing of 10 m.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Sea surface temperature changes due to global mean sea-level rise in present-day sensitivity experiments.

(a) shows the comparison between the co2400sl0.625 m and the co2400 experiment, the response of sea surface temperature (in °C) to the sea-level rise of 0.625 m. (b) to (f) as in (a), but the sea-level rise is 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 m, respectively. Only the significant differences with a confidence level higher than 95% (t-test) appear in the filled contours. The black outlines highlight temperature contours of negative and positive changes of 0.5, 1, and 2 degrees.

Extended Data Fig. 9 Statistics of annual water volume in seaways in high northern latitudes in present-day sensitivity experiments.

(a) Bering Strait. (b) Canadian Archipelago seaways. (c) Fram Strait. (d) Danmark Strait. (e) Barents Sea open. (f) Iceland-Faroe-Scotland channels. Positive means flow northward, while negative means flow southward (in Sv). The dots show the mean values, and the length of the error bars represent s.d. Filled (open) dots indicate the global mean sea-level rise leads to a significant (insignificant) change (higher than the 95% confidence level with t-test) in the mean value compared to the co2400 experiment. Solid (dotted) error bars indicate the sea-level rise leads to a significant (insignificant) response (higher than the 95% confidence level with F-test) in the s.d. relative to the co2400 experiment. Statistical analyses are based on 200 annual means for each experiment. The grey horizontal lines show the mean values simulated in the pre-industrial control experiment, which agree with observations45,46.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Discussion, Figs. 1–5 and Tables 1–3.

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Zhang, Z., Jansen, E., Sobolowski, S.P. et al. Atmospheric and oceanic circulation altered by global mean sea-level rise. Nat. Geosci. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01153-y

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