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The role of sex and gender in hypertension

Journal of Human Hypertension volume 37, pages 589–595 (2023)Cite this article

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Abstract

Hypertension (HTN) is a critical primary modifiable risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases, with recognized sex-based differences. While sex refers to one’s biological genetic makeup and attributes, gender encompasses the individual’s psycho-socio-cultural characteristics, including their environment and living conditions. The impact of each gendered variable may differ amongst men and women with respect to HTN. Applying a sex and gender-based lenses to inform our understanding of HTN has the potential to unveil important contributors of HTN-related cardiovascular outcomes. For instance, increased life stressors, work related anxiety and depression, typically have more pronounced effect on women than men with HTN. The impact of social surrounding including marital status and social support on HTN also differs amongst men and women. While married men are less likely to have higher blood pressure, single women, and those who never married are less likely to have HTN. Additionally, the beneficial role of social support is more pronounced in more historically marginalized cultural groups compared to majority. Finally, socioeconomic status, including education level and income have a linear and inverse relationship in blood pressure control in more resource-rich countries. The aim of this review is to summarize how sex and gender interact in shaping the clinical course of HTN demonstrating the importance of both sex and gender in HTN risk and its treatment. Hence, when investigating the role of gendered factors in HTN it is imperative to consider cultural, and social settings. In this narrative we found that employment and education play a significant role in manifestation and control of HTN particularly in women.

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Fig. 1: Role of sex and gender in hypertension.

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Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Zahra Azizi, Pouria Alipour.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Outcomes Research and Evaluation, McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada

    Zahra Azizi, Pouria Alipour & Louise Pilote

  2. Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

    Pouria Alipour

  3. Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy

    Valeria Raparelli

  4. University Center for Studies on Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy

    Valeria Raparelli

  5. Faculty of Nursing, Medicine, and School of Public Health Sciences University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

    Valeria Raparelli & Colleen M. Norris

  6. Heart and Stroke Strategic Clinical Networks-Alberta Health Services, Edmonton, AB, Canada

    Colleen M. Norris

  7. Divisions of Clinical Epidemiology and General Internal Medicine, McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada

    Louise Pilote

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ZA, PA, VR, CN, LP: Have made a substantial contribution to the concept or design of the article; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the article, drafted the article or revised it critically for important intellectual content, approved the version to be published, agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work.

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Azizi, Z., Alipour, P., Raparelli, V. et al. The role of sex and gender in hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 37, 589–595 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41371-022-00789-4

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