Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Decentralized energy systems for clean electricity access

Abstract

Innovative approaches are needed to address the needs of the 1.3 billion people lacking electricity, while simultaneously transitioning to a decarbonized energy system. With particular focus on the energy needs of the underserved, we present an analytic and conceptual framework that clarifies the heterogeneous continuum of centralized on-grid electricity, autonomous mini- or community grids, and distributed, individual energy services. A historical analysis shows that the present day is a unique moment in the history of electrification where decentralized energy networks are rapidly spreading, based on super-efficient end-use appliances and low-cost photovoltaics. We document how this evolution is supported by critical and widely available information technologies, particularly mobile phones and virtual financial services. These disruptive technology systems can rapidly increase access to basic electricity services and directly inform the emerging Sustainable Development Goals for quality of life, while simultaneously driving action towards low-carbon, Earth-sustaining, inclusive energy systems.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Prices vary by article type

from$1.95

to$39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: The relationship between access to electricity and human development index (HDI) for 2000–2010.
Figure 2: The relationship between access to electricity and selected Millennium Development indices for 2000–2010.
Figure 3: Two centuries of historical trends and a potential future scenario from 1830 to 2030 for electricity access in the context of technology and supporting network events and trends.
Figure 4: Five views on the continuum of electricity access based on real-world system operations.
Figure 5: Sales of household off-grid systems as reported by organizations active in market-based distribution.
Figure 6: Results from a simple model of climate impacts and adoption dynamics for electricity and lighting technology in Kenya.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. IPCC Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (eds Field, C.B. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014).

  2. SE4ALL Global Tracking Framework, 289 (UN Sustainable Energy For All, 2013).

  3. Casillas, C. E. & Kammen, D. M. The energy–poverty–climate nexus. Science 330, 1181–1182 (2010).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2011).

  5. Bazilian, M., Hobbs, B. F., Blyth, W., MacGill, I. & Howells, M. Interactions between energy security and climate change: A focus on developing countries. Energy Policy 39, 3750–3756 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Rong, F. Understanding developing country stances on post-2012 climate change negotiations: Comparative analysis of Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and South Africa. Energy Policy 38, 4582–4591 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Girod, B., Van Vuuren, D. P. & Hertwich, E. G. Global climate targets and future consumption level: an evaluation of the required GHG intensity. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 014016 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Diffenbaugh, N. S. Human well-being, the global emissions debt, and climate change commitment. Sustain. Sci. 8, 135–141 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. World Energy Outlook 2012 (OECD/IEA, 2012).

  10. Hansen, J. et al. Assessing 'Dangerous Climate Change': Required reduction of carbon emissions to protect young people, future generations and nature. PloS ONE 8, e81648 (2013).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Mills, E. The specter of fuel-based lighting. Science 308, 1263–1264 (2005).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Bacon, R., Bhattacharya, S. & Kojima, M. Expenditure of Low-Income Households on Energy. Extractive Industries for Development Series 16 (World Bank, 2010).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Lam, N. L., Smith, K. R., Gauthier, A. & Bates, M. N. Kerosene: A review of household uses and their hazards in low-and middle-income countries. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B 15, 396–432 (2012).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Mills, E. Health Impacts of Fuel Based Lighting (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Lumina Project, 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Lam, N. L. et al. Household light makes global heat: high black carbon emissions from kerosene wick lamps. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 13531–13538 (2012).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Cabraal, R. A., Barnes, D. F. & Agarwal, S. G. Productive uses of energy for rural development. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 30, 117–144 (2005).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Modi, V., McDade, S., Lallement, D. & Saghir, J. Energy Services for the Millennium Development Goals: Achieving the Millennium Development Goals (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank/UNDP, 2005).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Maximizing Mobile: Information and Communication Technologies for Development (World Bank, 2012).

  19. Burrell, J. & Matovu, J. Livelihoods and the Mobile Phone in Rural Uganda (Grameen Foundation, 2008).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Goldemberg, J., Johansson, T. B., Reddy, A. K. & Williams, R. H. Basic needs and much more with one kilowatt per capita. Ambio 14, 190–200 (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Pasternak, A. D. Global Energy Futures and Human Development: A Framework for Analysis. US Department of Energy Report UCRL-ID-140773 (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 2000).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Ghosh, S. Electricity consumption and economic growth in India. Energy Policy 30, 125–129 (2002).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Jumbe, C. B. Cointegration and causality between electricity consumption and GDP: Empirical evidence from Malawi. Energy Econ. 26, 61–68 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Wolde-Rufael, Y. Energy consumption and economic growth: The experience of African countries revisited. Energy Econ. 31, 217–224 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Wolde-Rufael, Y. Electricity consumption and economic growth: A time series experience for 17 African countries. Energy Policy 34, 1106–1114 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Chen, S-T., Kuo, H-I. & Chen, C-C. The relationship between GDP and electricity consumption in 10 Asian countries. Energy Policy 35, 2611–2621 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Cecelski, E. Energy, Development, and Gender: Global Correlations or Causality. (ENERGIA, 2005).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Nussbaumer, P., Bazilian, M. & Modi, V. Measuring energy poverty: Focusing on what matters. Renew. Sustain. Energy Revi. 16, 231–243 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Sovacool, B. K. The political economy of energy poverty: A review of key challenges. Energy Sustain. Devel. 16, 272–282 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Hughes, T. P. Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930 (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1983).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Hausman, W. J., Hertner, P. & Wilkins, M. Global Electrification: Multinational Enterprise and International Finance in the History of Light and Power, 1878–2007 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2011).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Rosnes, O., Shkaratan, M. & Vennemo, H. Africa's Power Infrastructure: Investment, Integration, Efficiency (World Bank, 2011).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Johansson, T. B., Patwardhan, A., Nakicenovic, N. & Gomez-Echeverri, L. Global Energy Assessment: Toward a Sustainable Future (Cambridge Univ. Press/International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, 2012).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  34. Tully, S. The human right to access electricity. Electric. J. 19, 30–39 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Bhattacharyya, S. Rural Electrification through Decentralised Off-grid Systems in Developing Countries (Springer, 2013).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  36. Goldemberg, J., Rovere, E. L. L. & Coelho, S. T. Expanding access to electricity in Brazil. Energy Sustain. Devel. 8, 86–94 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Lee, K. et al. Barriers to Electrification for 'Under Grid' Households in Rural Kenya. (Center for Effective Global Action, 2014).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  38. Foley, G. & Logarta, J. in The Challenge of Rural Electrification: Strategies for Developing Countries 45–73 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Azevedo, I. L., Morgan, M. G. & Morgan, F. The transition to solid-state lighting. Proc. IEEE 97, 481–510 (2009).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Park, W. Y., Phadke, A., Shah, N. & Letschert, V. TV Energy Consumption Trends and Energy-Efficiency Improvement Options. Report no. LBNL-5024E (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2011).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  41. Gopal, A., Leventis, G., Phadke, A. & de la Rue du Can, S. in ECEEE Summer Study http://go.nature.com/2fZjSj (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Shah, N., Sathaye, N., Phadke, A. & Letschert, V. Efficiency improvement opportunities for ceiling fans. Energy Effic. 8, 37–50 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Koomey, J. G., Berard, S., Sanchez, M. & Wong, H. Implications of historical trends in the electrical efficiency of computing. IEEE Ann. History Comput. 33, 46–54 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Tsao, J. Y. Solid-state lighting: lamps, chips, and materials for tomorrow. IEEE Circ. Devices Mag. 20, 28–37 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Feldman, D. et al. Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends: Historical, Recent, and Near-Term Projections (NREL/LBNL, 2014); http://go.nature.com/Mzf8Kg

    Google Scholar 

  46. Green Power for Mobile: Charging Choices / Off-grid Power for Mobile. (GSM Association, 2011).

  47. Ezzati, M. & Kammen, D. M. Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion and acute respiratory infections in Kenya: An exposure–response study. Lancet 358, 619–624 (2001).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Alstone, P., Lai, P., Mills, E. & Jacobson, A. High life-cycle efficacy explains fast energy payback for improved off-grid lighting systems. J. Indust. Ecol. 18, 722–733 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. From Gap to Opportunity: Business Models for Scaling Up Energy Access. (International Finance Corporation (IFC), 2012).

  50. Stewart Craine, E. M. & Guay, J. Clean Energy Services for All: Financing Universal Electrification (Sierra Club, 2014).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Bazilian, M. et al. Understanding the scale of investment for universal energy access. Geopolit. Energy 32, 19–40 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Mills, E. The $230 billion global lighting energy bill (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2002).

  53. Mills, E., Tracy, J. L., Alstone, P., Jacobson, A. & Avato, P. Low-cost LED flashlights and market spoiling in Kenya's off-grid lighting market. Energy Effic. 1–15 (2014).

  54. Quetchenbach, T. et al. The GridShare solution: a smart grid approach to improve service provision on a renewable energy mini-grid in Bhutan. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 014018 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Akerlof, G. A. The market for 'lemons': Quality uncertainty and the market mechanism. Q. J. Econ. 84, 488–500 (1970).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Painuly, J. P. Barriers to renewable energy penetration; a framework for analysis. Renew. Energy 24, 73–89 (2001).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Nique, M. & Arab, F. Sustainable Energy and Water Access through M2M Connectivity. (GSM Association, 2013).

    Google Scholar 

  58. Soto, D. et al. in Proc. Fifth Int. Conf. Information and Communication Technologies and Development 130–138 (ACM, 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  59. Alstone, P., Niethammer, C., Mendonça, B. & Eftimie, A. Expanding Women's Role in Africa's Modern Off-Grid Lighting Market (Lighting Africa Project, IFC, 2011).

    Google Scholar 

  60. Donner, J. & Tellez, C. A. Mobile banking and economic development: Linking adoption, impact, and use. Asian J. Commun. 18, 318–332 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Ilavarasan, V. & Levy, M. R. ICTs and Urban Microenterprises: Identifying and Maximizing Opportunities for Economic Development (IDRC, 2010).

    Google Scholar 

  62. Dalberg Global Development Advisors. Lighting Africa Market Trends Report 2012. (DGBA, 2012); http://www.lightingafrica.org/resources/market-research/market-trends/

  63. Rosa, J., Madduri, P. A. & Soto, D. in IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference http://doi.org/2qj (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  64. Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2005).

  65. Borenstein, S. A Microeconomic Framework for Evaluating Energy Efficiency Rebound and Some Implications (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2013).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  66. Jacobson, A., Milman, A. D. & Kammen, D. M. Letting the (energy) Gini out of the bottle: Lorenz curves of cumulative electricity consumption and Gini coefficients as metrics of energy distribution and equity. Energy Policy 33, 1825–1832 (2005).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Clark, M. L. et al. Impact of improved cookstoves on indoor air pollution and adverse health effects among Honduran women. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 19, 357–368 (2009).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

P.A. was supported by the EPA STAR graduate fellowship, D.G. by the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program, and all were supported by NSF grant SMA-1338539, Information–Energy Nexus Research Network. We acknowledge the valuable contributions of data from the Lighting Africa programme (where P.A. is also a contributor), the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, and multiple institutions and organizations that publicly share the critical data on energy systems that we assembled in this work. We are grateful for discussions on super-efficient appliances with A. Jacobson, A. Phadke and others at Humboldt State and LBNL. Thanks to N. Bryant, M. Mumbi, and D. Mugo for collaborating on fieldwork that informs our discussion of ICT and energy. This work benefited greatly from feedback provided by participants in seminars at UC Berkeley and from the comments of three anonymous reviewers.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Contributions

P.A., D.G. and D.M.K. conceived the work. P.A. designed and implemented the analysis and was lead author. D.G. and D.M.K. contributed to the analysis and writing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daniel M. Kammen.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Decentralized energy systems for clean electricity access (PDF 1128 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Alstone, P., Gershenson, D. & Kammen, D. Decentralized energy systems for clean electricity access. Nature Clim Change 5, 305–314 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2512

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2512

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing