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The morphogenesis of feathers

Nature volume 420, pages 308–312 (2002)Cite this article

Abstract

Feathers are highly ordered, hierarchical branched structures1,2 that confer birds with the ability of flight3,4,5. Discoveries of fossilized dinosaurs in China bearing ‘feather-like’ structures have prompted interest in the origin and evolution of feathers6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14. However, there is uncertainty about whether the irregularly branched integumentary fibres on dinosaurs such as Sinornithosaurus are truly feathers11, and whether an integumentary appendage with a major central shaft and notched edges is a non-avian feather or a proto-feather8,9,10. Here, we use a developmental approach to analyse molecular mechanisms in feather-branching morphogenesis. We have used the replication-competent avian sarcoma retrovirus15 to deliver exogenous genes to regenerating flight feather follicles of chickens. We show that the antagonistic balance between noggin and bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) has a critical role in feather branching, with BMP4 promoting rachis formation and barb fusion, and noggin enhancing rachis and barb branching. Furthermore, we show that sonic hedgehog (Shh) is essential for inducing apoptosis of the marginal plate epithelia, which results in spaces between barbs. Our analyses identify the molecular pathways underlying the topological transformation of feathers from cylindrical epithelia to the hierarchical branched structures, and provide insights on the possible developmental mechanisms in the evolution of feather forms.

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Figure 1: Feather-branching morphogenesis and gene expression.
Figure 2: Phenotypic changes in feathers regenerated from follicles injected with RCAS–noggin, RCAS–BMP4 and RCAS–BMP2, respectively.
Figure 3: Analyses of feathers injected with RCAS–noggin, RCAS–BMP4 and RCAS–BMP2, respectively.
Figure 4: The role of Shh in barb formation.
Figure 5: Models of feather branching and evolution of feather forms.

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Acknowledgements

We thank M. Ramos for help in preparing the manuscript; and R. Prum for critical comments on the manuscript. Figure 1b is modified from ref. 1. This work is supported by grants from the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, USA, and the National Science Foundation to C.-M.C., and a National Cancer Institute grant to R.B.W.

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  1. Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, 2011 Zonal Avenue, California, 90033, Los Angeles, USA

    Mingke Yu, Ping Wu, Randall B. Widelitz & Cheng-Ming Chuong

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  2. Ping Wu
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  4. Cheng-Ming Chuong
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Correspondence to Cheng-Ming Chuong.

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Yu, M., Wu, P., Widelitz, R. et al. The morphogenesis of feathers. Nature 420, 308–312 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01196

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