Nature 361, 40 - 44 (07 January 1993); doi:10.1038/361040a0

The 1908 Tunguska explosion: atmospheric disruption of a stony asteroid

Christopher F. Chyba^*†, Paul J. Thomas^‡ & Kevin J. Zahnle^*

^*Space Science Division, MS 245-3, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California 94035, USA
^‡Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire, Wisconsin 54702, USA

The explosion over Tunguska, Central Siberia, in 1908 released 10 to 20 megatons (high explosive equivalent) of energy at an altitude of about 10 km. This event represents a typical fate for stony asteroids tens of metres in radius entering the Earth's atmosphere at common hypersonic velocities. Comets and carbonaceous asteroids of the appropriate energy disrupt too high, whereas typical iron objects reach and crater the terrestrial surface.

References

1.	Kulik, L. A. Dokl. Acad. Nauk SSSR 23, 399−402 (1927).
2.	Baxter, J. & Atkins, T. The Fire Came By (Doubleday, Garden City NY, 1976).
3.	Whipple, F. J. W. Q.Jl R. met. Soc. 56, 287−304 (1930).
4.	Krinov, E. L. Giant Meteorites (Pergamon, Oxford, 1966).
5.	Shoemaker, E. M. A. Rev. Earth planet. Sci. 11, 461−494 (1983). | Article | ISI |
6.	Cowan, C., Atluri, C. R. & Libby, W. F. Nature 206, 861−865. | ChemPort |
7.	Jackson, A. A. & Ryan, M. P. Nature 245, 88−89 (1973). | Article | ChemPort |
8.	Fesenkov, V. G. Sov. Astr. 5, 441−451 (1962).
9.	Petrov, G. I. & Stulov, V. P. Cosmic Res. 13, 525−531 (1975).
10.	Liu, V. C. Geophys. Res. Lett. 5, 309−312 (1978).
11.	Park, C. Acta astronaut. 5, 523−542 (1978). | Article | ChemPort |
12.	Turco, R. P. et al. Icarus 50, 1−52 (1982). | Article | ChemPort |
13.	Folinsbee, R. E., Douglas, J. A. V. & Maxwell, J. A. Geochim. cosmochim. Acta 31, 1625−1635 (1967). | Article | ChemPort |
14.	Hunt, J. N., Palmer, R. & Penney, W. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 252, 275−315 (1960).
15.	Ben-Menahem, A. Phys. Earth planet. Int. 11, 1−35 (1975).
16.	Zolotov, A. V. Sov. Phys. Dokl. 12, 101−104 (1967).
17.	Ganapathy, R. Science 220, 1158−1161 (1983). | ISI | ChemPort |
18.	Rocchia, R. et al. in Global Catastrophes in Earth History (eds Sharpton, V. L. & Ward, P. D.), 189−193 (Geol. Soc. Am. SP-247, Boulder CO, 1990).
19.	Neftel, A., Beer, J., Oeschger, H., Zücher, F. & Finkel, R. C. Nature 314, 611−613 (1985). | Article | ISI | ChemPort |
20.	Sekanina, Z. Astr. J. 88, 1382−1414 (1983). | Article | ISI |
21.	Levin, B. Yu. & Bronshten, V. A. Meteoritics 21, 199−215 (1986).
22.	Korobeinikov, V. P., Chushkin, P. I. & Shursnalov, L. V. Acta astronaut. 3, 615−622 (1976). | Article |
23.	Zotkin, I. T. & Tsikulin, M. A. Sov. Phys. Dokl. 11, 183−186 (1966).
24.	Baldwin, B. & Sheaffer, Y. J. geophys. Res. 76, 4653−4668 (1971). | ISI |
25.	Bronshten, V. A. Physics of Meteoric Phenomena (Reidel, Dordrecht, 1983).
26.	Melosh, H. J. Impact Cratering (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1989).
27.	Chyba, C. F., Thomas, P. J., Brookshaw, L. & Sagan, C. Science 249, 366−373 (1990). | PubMed | ISI | ChemPort |
28.	Walker, J. C. G. Icarus 68, 87−98 (1986). | Article |
29.	Zahnle, K. J. J. geophys. Res. 97, 10,243−10,255 (1992). | ChemPort |
30.	Biberman, L. M., Bronin, S. Ya. & Brykin, M. V. Acta astronaut. 7, 53−65 (1980). | Article |
31.	Passey, Q. R. & Melosh, H. J. Icarus 42, 211−233 (1980). | Article | ISI |
32.	Grigoryan, S. S. Cosmic Res. 17, 724−740 (1979).
33.	Grieve, R. A. F. in Geological Implications of Impacts of Large Asteroids and Comets on the Earth (eds Silver, L. T. & Schultz, P. H.) 25−37 (Geol. Soc. Am. SP-190, Boulder CO, 1982).
34.	Seiff, A. in Gas Dynamics in Space Exploration, 19−32 (NASA SP-24, 1962).
35.	Öpik, E. J. Physics of Meteor Flight in the Atmosphere (Interscience, New York, 1958).
36.	Ivanov, B. A., Basilevsky, A. T., Kryuchkov, V. P. & Chernaya, I. M. J. geophys. Res. 91, D413−D430 (1986).
37.	Sekanina, Z. in Comets (ed. Wilkening, L. L.), 251−287 (Univ. of Arizona, 1982).
38.	Hoerner, S. F. Fluid-Dynamic Drag (Hoerner, Midland Park NJ, 1965).
39.	NOAA U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 (U.S. Govt Printing Office, Washington DC, 1976).
40.	Chyba, C. F. Icarus 92, 217−233 (1991). | Article |
41.	Weissman, P. R. in Global Catastrophes in Earth History (eds Sharpton, V. L. & Ward, P. D.), 171−180 (Geol. Soc. Am. SP-247, Boulder CO, 1990).
42.	Peale, S. J. Icarus 82, 36−49 (1989). | Article | ChemPort |
43.	Glasstone, S. & Dolan, P. J. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (Dept of Defense, Washington DC 1977).
44.	Jones, E. M. & Kodis, J. W. in Geological Implications of Impacts of Large Asteroids and Comets on the Earth (eds Silver, L. T. & Schultz, P. H.) 175−186 (Geol. Soc. Am. SP-190, Boulder CO, 1982).
45.	ReVelle, D. O. J. geophys. Res. 81, 1217−1230 (1976).