Key Points
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The enteric nervous system (ENS) operates essentially independently of the CNS to regulate the complex behaviours of the gut, including the regulation of smooth muscle contractions to generate peristalsis and mixing movements, and the control of secretions from its glands.
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The ENS derives from migratory enteric neural crest-derived cells (ENCCs), which originate primarily from the vagal region of the neural tube (although sacral neural crest cells also contribute to the ENS of the midgut and hindgut).
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During migration stages, the ENS is a heterogeneous mix of proliferating precursors and progressively differentiating neurons and glial cells.
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The most common and best understood congenital defect in ENS development is Hirschsprung's disease (HSCR), which occurs in 1:5,000 births and is characterized by the absence of enteric ganglia in distal portions of the gut. The current treatment is surgical, and although generally successful, the functional outcome is variable.
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Many genetic regulators of ENS development have been identified through a combination of human genetic studies to identify mutations underlying HSCR, and studies in animal models such as mice and zebrafish. Mutations in the RET receptor tyrosine kinase account for most HSCR cases, and loss of Ret in both mice and zebrafish leads to a lack enteric neurons throughout most of the gut.
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The activity of the glial cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)–RET–GDNF family receptor α1 (GFRα1) and endothelin 3 (EDN3)–EDN receptor B (EDNRB) signalling pathways and the transcription factor SOX10 are all required during ENS development. ENCCs express the receptors RET, GFRα1 and EDNRB, as well as SOX10, whereas the gut mesenchyme expresses the ligands GDNF and EDN3.
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Genetic studies in both humans and mice have identified genetic interactions between RET and EDNRB, and EDNRB and SOX10. Although protein kinase A has been suggested to mediate the interaction between RET and EDNRB, the true nature of the interactions between the various regulators of ENS development remains unknown.
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New regulators of ENS development continue to be identified through human genetic studies of populations and of isolated cases, analysis of mouse mutants, and genetic screens in mice and zebrafish. In parallel, expression profiling of the ENS, for example through microarray analysis, highlights candidate ENS regulators.
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A growing number of studies aim to identify ENS stem cells (ENSCs), and in certain cases a self-renewing multipotent ENS-derived population has been identified which, when allowed to differentiate, is capable of recapitulating the normal profile of progressive ENS differentiation. A long-term aim of these studies is the development of stem cell replacement therapies, which may provide an alternative to surgical treatment for HSCR.
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ENSCs have been isolated from murine HSCR model gut tissue, and ENS precursor cells have been isolated from the tissue of patients with HSCR. These results establish an important point of principle: that an HSCR patient's own tissue could be used as the starting material to generate ENSCs for cell transplantation therapy.
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The cell transplantation models developed to date involve injecting small numbers of ENS precursor cells or ENSCs into murine tissues, either wild-type or HSCR models, or into the gut of wild-type or HSCR model postnatal animals. The successful migration and differentiation of transplanted cells has offered encouragement that such models are worthy of further exploration.
Abstract
The enteric nervous system (ENS) has been explored by developmental neurobiologists and medical researchers for decades. Whereas developmental biologists have been unravelling the molecular mechanisms underlying the migration, proliferation and differentiation of the neural crest derivatives that give rise to the ENS, human geneticists have been uncovering the genetic basis for diseases of the ENS, notably Hirschsprung's disease. Here we discuss the exciting recent advances, including novel transgenic and genetic tools, a broadening range of model organisms, and the pursuit of ENS stem cells as a therapeutic tool, that are bringing these fields closer together.
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Acknowledgements
We wish to thank members of the Pachnis laboratory, M. Logan and the anonymous referees for their helpful comments.
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DATABASES
OMIM
FURTHER INFORMATION
Glossary
- Peristalsis
-
Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle that propel the contents of tubular structures, such as the gastrointestinal tract.
- Neural crest
-
Groups of cells that migrate from the neural tube to the periphery, where they give rise to a wide variety of cell types including neurons and glial cells of the PNS, parts of the musculoskeletal system of the head, and melanocytes.
- Somites
-
Paired blocks of mesoderm cells which form on either side of the neural tube in the vertebrate embryo and give rise to dermal skin, bone and muscle.
- Aganglionosis
-
Absence of enteric ganglia from the gut.
- Non-Mendelian
-
Inheritance affected by complex genetic and environmental factors, leading to variable penetrance and expressivity of a genetic trait without exhibiting patterns of single locus transmission.
- Susceptibility loci
-
Alleles that affect the risk of developing disease.
- Alternative splicing
-
During splicing, introns are excised from RNA after transcription and the cut ends are rejoined to form a continuous message. Alternative splicing allows the production of different messages from the same DNA molecule.
- Gene dosage
-
The number of times a gene copy is present in the genome.
- Haploinsufficiency
-
Loss of one copy (one allele) of a gene, resulting in an abnormal or disease state.
- Linkage studies
-
Linkage is the tendency of genes and other genetic markers to be inherited together. Large multigenerational families enriched for particular disease phenotypes are screened for genetic markers that are transmitted with the disease (because they are closely linked), thus localizing the disease-associated gene to a relatively small chromosomal region.
- DNA microarrays
-
A device that is used to interrogate complex nucleic acid samples by hybridization. It makes it possible to quantify the cDNA molecules that are present in a tissue and detect changes, for example, between developmental stages or in response to disease states.
- Real-time PCR
-
A technique designed to quantify the amount of DNA (or cDNA) in a sample by detecting and quantifying sequence-specific PCR (or reverse-transcription PCR) products as they accumulate in 'real-time' during the PCR amplification process.
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Heanue, T., Pachnis, V. Enteric nervous system development and Hirschsprung's disease: advances in genetic and stem cell studies. Nat Rev Neurosci 8, 466–479 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2137
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2137
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