Abstract
This review provides both a biological and clinical perspective on Time-Dependent Sensitization (TDS), an ancient amplified memory response to threat manifest in the ability of both drugs and nondrug stressors to induce neuronal and behavioral effects which strengthen entirely as a function of the passage of time following even a single or acute exposure. Evidence is presented to show that TDS may be involved in the development of a spectrum of diseases and how drug regimens based on the principles of TDS could provide a novel and revolutionary means of treating psychiatric and other illnesses.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $21.58 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Darwin C . On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life Appleton: New York 1889; pp 295–296
Planck M . Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers Philosophical Library: New York 1949; pp 33–34
Antelman SM, Chiodo LA . Repeated antidepressant treatments induce a long-lasting dopamine autoreceptor subsensitivity: is daily treatment necessary for clinical efficacy? Psychopharmacol Bull 1981; 17: 92–94
Chiodo LA, Antelman SM . Electroconvulsive shock: progressive dopamine autoreceptor subsensitivity independent of repeated treatment Science 1980; 210: 799–801
Chiodo LA, Antelman SM . Repeated tricyclics induce a progressive dopamine autoreceptor subsensitivity independent of daily drug treatment Nature 1980; 287: 451–454
Antelman SM, DeGiovanni LA, Kocan D et al. Amitriptyline sensitization of a serotonin-mediated behavior depends on the passage of time and not repeated treatment Life Sci 1983; 33: 1727–1730
Lace JW, Antelman SM . Cortical beta-adrenergic subsensitivity after desmethylimipramine may depend on the passage of time rather than daily treatment Brain Res 1983; 278: 359–361
Antelman SM, Chiodo LA, DeGiovanni LA . Antidepressant and dopamine autoreceptors: implications for both a novel means of treating depression and understanding bipolar illness. In: Costa E, Racagni G (eds). Typical and Atypical Antidepressants, Molecular Mechanisms Raven Press: New York 1982
Antelman SM . Is it possible that drugs have been given the wrong way for centuries? In: Sen AK and Lee T (eds). Receptors and Ligands in Psychiatry Cambridge Press: Cambridge 1988
Dziedzicka-Wasylewska M, Rogoz Z . Time-dependent effects of antidepressant drugs on the low dose of apomorphine-induced locomotor hypoactivity in rats Polish J Pharmacol 1997; 49: 337–343
Antelman SM, Eichler AJ, Black CA et al. Interchangeability of stress and amphetamine in sensitization Science 1980; 207: 329–331
Antelman SM, Chiodo LA . Amphetamine as a stressor. In: Creese I (ed), Stimulants: Neurochemical, Behavioral and Clinical Perspectives Raven Press: New York 1983
Paulson PE, Robinson TE . Amphetamine-induced time-dependent sensitization of dopamine neurotransmission in the dorsal and ventral striatum: a microdialysis study in behaving rats Synapse 1995; 19: 56–65
Schmidt ED, Tilders FJ, Janszen AW et al. Intermittent cocaine exposure causes delayed and long-lasting sensitization of cocaine-induced ACTH secretion in rats Eur J Pharmacol 1995; 285: 317–321
Antelman SM, Kocan D, Edwards DJ et al. Anticonvulsant and other effects of diazepam grow with time after a single treatment Pharmacol Biochem Beh 1989; 33: 31–39
Smith RB, Kroboth PD, Folan MM et al. Pharmacodynamic design and evaluation of novel dual release formulations of triazolam Int J Clin Pharmacol Therapeut Toxicol 1993; 35: 422–429
Derry CL, Kroboth PD, Pittenger AL et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of triazolam after two intermittent doses in obese and normal-weight men J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995; 15: 197–205
Kroboth PD, McAuley JW, Derry CL . Time-dependent sensitization to triazolam? An observation in three studies J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995; 15: 192–196
Antelman SM, Caggiula AR, Kocan D et al. One experience with ‘lower’ or ‘higher’ intensity stressors, respectively enhances or diminishes responsiveness to haloperidol weeks later: implications for understanding drug variability Brain Res 1991; 566: 276–283
Caggiula AR, Antelman SM, Palmer AM et al. The effects of ethanol on striatal dopamine and frontal cortical D-[3H]aspartate efflux oscillate with repeated treatment: relevance to individual differences in drug responsiveness Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 15: 125–132
Pollock J, Kornetsky C . Reexpression of morphine-induced oral stereotypy six months after last morphine sensitizing dose Pharmacol Biochem Beh 1996; 53: 67–71
Martin P, Soubrie P, Simon P . Does a single priming injection of clenbuterol alter behavioral response to beta-adrenoceptor agonists and antagonists in mice through a time-dependent process? Eur J Pharmacol 1985; 115: 91–96
Pollock BG, Perel J, Shostak M et al. Understanding the response lag to tricyclics. I. Application of pulse-loading regimens with intravenous clomipramine Psychopharmacol Bull 1986; 22: 214–229
Pollock BG, Perel J, Nathan SR et al. Acute antidepressant effect following pulse loading with intravenous and oral clomipramine Arch Gen Psychiat 1989; 46: 29–35
Dube S, Perel JM, Miewald J et al. Antidepressant response to oral pulse loading with clomipramine (abstract) Biol Psychiat 1996; 39: 623
Schmidt ED, Janszen AW, Wouterlood FG et al. Interleukin-1-induced long-lasting changes in hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)-neurons and hyperresponsiveness of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis J Neurosci 1995; 15: 7417–7426
Schmidt ED, Binnekade AW, Janszen AW et al. Short stressor induced long-lasting increases of vasopressin stores in hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons in adult rats J Neuroendocrinol 1996; 8: 703–712
Denicoff KD, Durkin TM, Lotze MT et al. The neuroendocrine effects of interleukin-2 treatment J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 69: 402–410
Hayley S, Brebner K, Lacosta S et al. Sensitization to the effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha: neuroendocrine, central monoamine and behavioral variations J Neurosci 1999; 19: 5654–5665
Stanford SC, Little HJ, Nutt DJ et al. A single dose of FG7142 causes long-term increases in mouse cortical β-adrenoceptors Eur J Pharmacol 1986; 134: 313–319
Antelman SM, Knopf S, Kocan D et al. Persistent sensitization of clonidine-induced hypokinesia following one exposure to a stressor: possible relevance to panic disorder and its treatment Psychopharmacology 1989; 98: 97–101
Tam SP, Hache RJ, Deeley RG . Estrogen memory effect in human hepatocytes during repeated cell division without hormone Science 1986; 234: 1234–1237
Hache RJ, Tam SP, Cochrane A et al. Long-term effects of estrogen on avian liver: estrogen-inducible switch in expression of nuclear, hormone-binding proteins Mol Cell Biol 1987; 7: 3538–3547
Burch JBE, Evans MI . Chromatin structural transitions and the phenomenon of vitellogenin gene memory in chickens Mol Cell Biol 1986; 6: 1886–1893
Schmidt ED, Janszen AW, Binnekade AW et al. Transient suppression of resting corticosterone levels induces sustained increase of AVP stores in hypothalamic CRH-neurons of rats J Neuroendocrinol 1997; 9: 69–77
Antelman SM, Kocan D, Edwards DJ et al. Behavioral effects of a single neuroleptic treatment grows with the passage of time Brain Res 1986; 385: 58–67
Meil W, See RE . Single preexposure to fluphenazine produces persisting behavioral sensitization accompanied by tolerance to fluphenazine-induced striatal dopamine overflow in rats Pharmacol Biochem Beh 1994; 48: 605–612
Antelman SM . Time-dependent sensitization as the cornerstone for a new approach to pharmacotherapy: drugs as foreign/stressful stimuli Drug Dev Res 1988; 14: 1–30
Williams SA, Wesnes K, Oliver SD et al. Absence of effect of Sertraline on time-based sensitization of cognitive impairment with haloperidol J Clin Psychiat 1996; 57: (suppl 1) 7–11
Caggiula AR, Antelman SM, Aul E et al. Prior stress attenuates the analgesic response but sensitizes the corticosterone and cortical dopamine responses to stress 10 days later Psychopharmacology 1989; 99: 233–237
Antelman SM, Kocan D, Knopf S et al. One brief exposure to a psychological stressor induces long-lasting, time-dependent sensitization of both the cataleptic and neurochemical responses to haloperidol Life Sci 1992; 51: 261–266
Dziedzicka-Wasylewska M . The effect of imipramine on the amount of mRNA coding for rat dopamine D2 autoreceptors Eur J Pharmacol 1997; 337: 291–296
Antelman SM, Caggiula AR . Oscillation follows drug sensitization: implications Crit Revs Neurobiol 1996; 10: 101–117
Antelman SM, Caggiula AR, Knopf S et al. Amphetamine or haloperidol 2 weeks earlier antagonized the plasma corticosterone response to amphetamine: evidence for the stressful/foreign nature of drugs Psychopharmacology 1992; 107: 331–336
Vandijken HH, DeGoeji DC, Sutanto W et al. Short inescapable stress produces long-lasting changes in the brain-pituitary-adrenal axis of adult male rats Neuroendocrinology 1993; 58: 57–64
Sutanto W, Oitzl MS, Rots NY et al. Corticosteroid receptor plasticity in the central nervous system of various rat models Endocr Regul 1992; 26: 111–118
Liberzon I, Krstov M, Young EA . Stress-restress: effects on ACTH and fast feedback Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997; 22: 443–453
Persoons JH, Moes NM, Broug-Holub E et al. Acute and long-term effects of stressors on pulmonary immune functions Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1997; 17: 203–208
Antelman SM, Cunnick JE, Lysle DT et al. Immobilization 12 days (but not one hour) earlier enhanced 2-deoxy-D-glucose-induced immunosuppression: evidence for stressor-induced time-dependent sensitization of the immune system Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiat 1990; 14: 579–590
Klatzo I, Spatz M . Studies on experimental ischemia in mongolian gerbils. In: Zulch KJ, Kaufman W, Hossman KA, Hossman V (eds). Brain and Heart Infarct II Springer-Verlag: New York 1979
Fuller JL, Collins RL . Temporal patterns of sensitization for audiogenic seizures in SJL/mice Dev Psychobiol 1968; 1: 185–188
Vandijken HH, van der Heyden JA, Mos J et al. Inescapable footshocks induce progressive and long-lasting behavioural changes in male rats Physiol Behav 1992; 51: 787–794
Robinson TE . Stimulant drugs and stress: factors influencing individual differences in the susceptibility to sensitization. In: Kalivas PW, Barnes CD (eds). Sensitization of the Nervous System Telford Press: NJ 1988
Koolhaas JM, DeBoer SF, DeRutter AJ et al. Social stress in rats and mice Acta Physiol Scand Suppl 1997; 640: 69–72
Malhotra S, Santosh PJ . Loading dose imipramine—new approach to pharmacotherapy of melancholic depression J Psychiat Res 1996; 30: 51–58
Sallee FR, Vrindavanam NS, Deas-Nesmith D et al. Pulse intravenous clomipramine for depressed adolescents: double-blind, controlled trial Am J Psychiat 1997; 154: 668–673
Jagadeesh HN, Gangadhar BN, Janakiramaiah DK et al. Time dependent therapeutic effects of single electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in endogenous depression J Affect Dis 1992; 24: 291–296
Antelman SM, Gershon S . Clinical application of time-dependent sensitization to antidepressant therapy Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiat 1998; 22: 65–78
Deuschle M, Schmider J, Weber B et al. Pulse-dosing and conventional application of doxepine: effects on psychopathology and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 17: 156–160
Yuille MR, Houlston RS, Catovsky D . Anticipation in familial chronic lymphocytic leukaemia Leukemia 1998; 12: 1696–1698
Farquhar J, Gajdusek DC . Kuru Raven Press: New York 1981; pp 44, 260
Archibald HC, Tuddenham RO . Persistent stress reaction after combat: a twenty year follow-up Arch Gen Psychiat 1965; 12: 475–481
Yehuda R, Antelman SM . Criteria for rationally evaluating animal models of posttraumatic stress disorder Biol Psychiat 1993; 33: 479–486
Antelman SM, Caggiula AR, Gershon S et al. Stressor-induced oscillation: a possible model of the bidirectional symptoms in PTSD Ann NY Acad Sci 1997; 821: 296–304
Elwood JM, Jopson J . Melanoma and sun exposure: an overview of published studies Int J Cancer 1997; 73: 198–203
Sotelo J . Multiple viral pathogenicity: another paradigm in medical research Perspectives Biol Med 1996; 39: 507–513
Marks IM . Fears, Phobias, and Rituals Oxford University Press: New York 1987; p 249
Keynes JM . The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money Harcourt-Brace: New York 1936; p viii
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Antelman, S., Levine, J. & Gershon, S. Time-dependent sensitization: the odyssey of a scientific heresy from the laboratory to the door of the clinic. Mol Psychiatry 5, 350–356 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4000721
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4000721
Keywords
This article is cited by
-
The Compensatory Immune-Regulatory Reflex System (CIRS) in Depression and Bipolar Disorder
Molecular Neurobiology (2018)
-
Stress-Induced Reinstatement of Drug Seeking: 20 Years of Progress
Neuropsychopharmacology (2016)
-
Molecular Psychiatry: 20 Years
Molecular Psychiatry (2015)
-
Incubation of Methamphetamine and Palatable Food Craving after Punishment-Induced Abstinence
Neuropsychopharmacology (2014)
-
The neuroprogressive nature of major depressive disorder: pathways to disease evolution and resistance, and therapeutic implications
Molecular Psychiatry (2013)