Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Therapeutic strategies for allergic diseases

Abstract

Many drugs are now in development for the treatment of atopic diseases, including asthma, allergic rhinitis and atopic dermatitis. These treatments are based on improvements in existing therapies or on a better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in atopic diseases. Although most attention has been focused on asthma, treatments that inhibit the atopic disease process would have application to all atopic diseases, as they often coincide. Most of the many new therapies in development are aimed at inhibiting components of the allergic inflammatory response, but in the future there are real possibilities for the development of preventative and even curative treatments.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: Dissociation of anti-inflammatory effects from side effects of corticosteroids.
Figure 2
Figure 3: Inhibition of eosinophilic inflammation.
Figure 4: Inhibition of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and Th2 lymphocytes.

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. *Terms in italic are defined in the glossary on p. 39.

References

  1. Barnes, P. J. New drugs for asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 26, 738–745 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Barnes, P. J., Pedersen, S. & Busse, W. W. Efficacy and safety of inhaled corticosteroids: an update. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, S1–S53 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Mygind, N., Dahl, R., Nielsen, L. P., Hilberg, O. & Bjerke, T. Effect of corticosteroids on nasal blockage in rhinitis measured by objective methods. Allergy 52, 39–44 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Taylor, D. A. et al. A dose-dependent effect of the novel inhaled corticosteroid ciclesonide on airway responsiveness to adenosine-5′-monophosphate in asthmatic patients. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160, 237–243 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Barnes, P. J. Antiinflammatory actions of glucocorticoids: molecular mechanisms. Clin. Sci. 94, 557–572 ( 1998).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Vayssière, B. M. et al. Synthetic glucocorticoids that dissociate transactivation and AP-1 transrepression exhibit antiinflammatory activity in vivo. Mol. Endocrinol. 11, 1245–1255 (1997).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Barnes, P. J., Chung, K. F. & Page, C. P. Inflammatory mediators of asthma: an update. Pharmacol. Rev. 50, 515–596 (1998).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. van Ganse, E., Kaufman, L., Derde, M. P., Yernault, J. C. & Delaunois, L. Effects of antihistamines in adult asthma: a meta-analysis of clinical trials. Eur. Respir. J. 10, 2216–2224 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Drazen, J. M., Israel, E. & O'Byrne, P. M. Treatment of asthma with drugs modifying the leukotriene pathway. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 197– 206 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Dahlen, B. et al. Benefits from adding the 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor zileuton to conventional therapy in aspirin-intolerant asthmatics. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, 1187– 1194 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. In, K. H. et al. Naturally occurring mutations in the human 5-lipoxygenase gene promoter that modify transcription factor binding and reporter gene transcription. J. Clin. Invest. 99, 1130– 1137 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Pullerits, T., Praks, L., Skoogh, B. E., Ani, R. & Lotvall, J. Randomized placebo-controlled study comparing a leukotriene receptor antagonist and a nasal glucocorticoid in seasonal allergic rhinitis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159, 1814 –1818 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Barnes, P. J. Nitric oxide and airway disease. Ann. Med. 27, 389–393 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Hay, D. W., Henry, P. J. & Goldie, R. G. Is endothelin-1 a mediator in asthma? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154, 1594– 1597 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Clark, J. M. et al. Tryptase inhibitors block allergen-induced airway and inflammatory responses in allergic sheep. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152, 2076–2083 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Krishna, M. T. et al. Effect of inhaled APC 366 on allergen-induced bronchoconstriction and airway hyperresponsivness to histamine in atopic subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, A456 (1998).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Chung, K. F. & Barnes, P. J. Cytokines in asthma. Thorax 54, 825–857 ( 1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Egan, R. W., Umland, S. P., Cuss, F. M. & Chapman, R. W. Biology of interleukin-5 and its relevance to allergic disease. Allergy 51, 71–81 ( 1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Leckie, M. J. et al. SB 240563, a humanized anti-IL-5 monoclonal antibody. Initial single dose safety and activity in patients with asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159, A624 ( 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Hogan, S. P. et al. A novel T cell-regulated mechanism modulating allergen-induced airways hyperreactivity in BALB/c mice independently of IL-4 and IL-5. J. Immunol. 161, 1501–1509 (1998).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Gavett, S. H. et al. Interleukin-4 receptor blockade prevents airway responses induced by antigen challenge in mice. Am. J. Physiol. 272, L253–L261 (1997).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Borish, L. C. et al. Phase I/II study of interleukin-4 receptor (IL-4R) in moderate asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 101, S8 (1998).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Foster, P. S. STAT6: an intracellular target for the inhibition of allergic disease. Clin. Exp. Allergy 29, 12–16 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Losman, J. A., Chen, X. P., Hilton, D. & Rothman, P. Cutting edge: SOCS-1 is a potent inhibitor of IL-4 signal transduction. J. Immunol. 162, 3770–3774 ( 1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Wills-Karp, M. et al. Interleukin-13: central mediator of allergic asthma. Science 282, 2258–2261 ( 1998).

    Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Li, L. et al. Effects of Th2 cytokines on chemokine expression in the lung: IL-13 potently induces eotaxin expression by airway epithelial cells. J. Immunol. 162, 2477–2487 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Chomarat, P. & Banchereau, J. Interleukin-4 and interleukin-13: their similarities and discrepancies. Int. Rev. Immunol. 17, 1–52 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Feldman, M., Taylor, P., Paleolog, E., Brennan, F. M. & Maini, R. N. Anti-TNF alpha therapy is useful in rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn's disease: analysis of the mechanism of action predicts utility in other diseases. Transplant. Proc. 30, 4126–4127 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Luster, A. D. Chemokines—chemotactic cytokines that mediate inflammation. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 436–445 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Heath, H. et al. Chemokine receptor usage by human eosinophils. The importance of CCR3 demonstrated using an antagonistic monoclonal antibody. J. Clin. Invest. 99, 178–184 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Elsner, J. et al. The CC chemokine antagonist Met-RANTES inhibits eosinophil effector functions through the chemokine receptors CCR1 and CCR3. Eur. J. Immunol. 27, 2892–2898 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Barnes, P. J. & Lim, S. Inhibitory cytokines in asthma. Mol. Med. Today 4, 452–458 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Selig, W. & Tocker, J. Effect of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist on antigen-induced pulmonary responses in guinea-pigs. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 213, 331–336 (1992).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Pretolani, M. & Goldman, M. IL-10: a potential therapy for allergic inflammation? Immunol. Today 18, 277– 280 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Borish, L. et al. Interleukin-10 regulation in normal subjects and patients with asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol 97, 1288–1296 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. John, M. et al. Inhaled corticosteroids increase IL-10 but reduce MIP-1α, GM-CSF and IFN-γ release from alveolar macrophages in asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, 256– 262 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. van Deventer, S. J., Elson, C. O. & Fedorak, R. N. Multiple doses of intravenous interleukin 10 in steroid-refractory Crohn's disease. Crohn's Disease Study Group. Gastroenterology 113, 383–389 ( 1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Seldon, P. M., Barnes, P. J. & Giembycz, M. A. Interleukin-10 does not mediate the inhibitory effect of PDE4 inhibitors and other cAMP-elevating drugs on lipopolysacchariude-induced tumor necrosis factor-α generation from human peripheral blood monocytes. Cell Biochem. Biophys. 28, 179– 201 (1998).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Lack, G. et al. Nebulized IFN-gamma inhibits the development of secondary allergic responses in mice. J. Immunol. 157, 1432 –1439 (1996).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Boguniewicz, M., Martin, R. J., Martin, D., Gibson, U. & Celniker, A. The effects of nebulized recombinant interferon-y in asthmatic airways. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol 95, 133–135 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Benjaponpitak, S. et al. The kinetics of change in cytokine production by CD4 T cells during conventional allergen immunotherapy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 103, 468–475 ( 1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Durham, S. R. et al. Grass pollen immunotherapy inhibits allergen-induced infiltration of CD4+ T lymphocytes and eosinophils in the nasal mucosa and increases the number of cells expressing messenger RNA for interferon-gamma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 97, 1356– 1365 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Gately, M. K. et al. The interleukin-12/interleukin-12-receptor system: role in normal and pathologic immune responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 16, 495–521 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Gavett, S. H. et al. Interleukin 12 inhibits antigen-induced airway hyperresponsivness, inflammation and Th2 cytokine expression in mice. J. Exp. Med. 182, 1527–1536 ( 1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kim, T. S. et al. An ovalbumin-IL-12 fusion protein is more effective than ovalbumin plus free recombinant IL-12 in inducing a T helper cell type 1-dominated immune response and inhibiting antigen-specific IgE production. J. Immunol. 158, 4137–4144 ( 1997).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Torphy, T. J. Phosphodiesterase isoenzymes. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, 351–370 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Chan, S. C. & Hanifin, J. M. Differential inhibitor effects on phosphodiesterase isoforms in atopic and normal leukocytes. J. Lab Clin. Med. 121, 44–51 (1993).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Harbison, P. L. et al. The effect of a novel orally active selective PDE4 isoenzyme inhibitor (CD840) on allergen-induced responses in asthmatic subjects. Eur. Respir. J. 10, 1008–1014 (1997).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Muller, T., Engels, P. & Fozard, J. Subtypes of the type 4 cAMP phosphodiesterase: structure, regulation and selective inhibition. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 17, 294–298 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Seybold, J. et al. Induction of phosphodiesterases 3B, 4A4, 4D1, 4D2, and 4D3 in Jurkat T- cells and in human peripheral blood T-lymphocytes by 8-bromo-cAMP and Gs-coupled receptor agonists. Potential role in β2-adrenoreceptor desensitization. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 20575–20588 ( 1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Barnes, P. J. & Karin, M. Nuclear factor-κB: a pivotal transcription factor in chronic inflammatory diseases. N. Engl. J. Med. 336, 1066–1071 ( 1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Barnes, P. J. & Adcock, I. M. Transcription factors and asthma. Eur. Respir. J. 12, 221– 234 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Karin, M. Mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades as regulators of stress responses. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 851, 139– 146 (1998).

    Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Schafer, P. H., Wadsworth, S. A., Wang, L. & Siekierka, J. J. p38alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase is activated by CD28-mediated signaling and is required for IL-4 production by human CD4+CD45RO+ T Cells and Th2 effector cells. J. Immunol. 162, 7110– 7119 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Kankaanranta, H., Giembycz, M. A., Barnes, P. J. & Lindsay, D. A. SB203580, an inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, enhances constitutive apoptosis of cytokine-deprived human eosinophils. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 290, 621–628 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Costello, P. S. et al. Critical role for the tyrosine kinase Syk in signalling through the high affinity IgE receptor of mast cells. Oncogene 13, 2595–2605 (1996).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Yousefi, S., Hoessli, D. C., Blaser, K., Mills, G. B. & Simon, H. U. Requirement of Lyn and Syk tyrosine kinases for the prevention of apoptosis by cytokines in human eosinophils. J. Exp. Med. 183, 1407– 1414 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Amoui, M., Draber, P. & Draberova, L. Src family-selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor, PP1, inhibits both FcεRI- and Thy-1-mediated activation of rat basophilic leukemia cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 27, 1881 –1886 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Alexander, A. G., Barnes, N. C. & Kay, A. B. Trial of cyclosporin in corticosteroid-dependent chronic severe asthma. Lancet 339, 324– 328 (1992).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Nizankowska, E. et al. Treatment of steroid-dependent bronchial asthma with cyclosporin. Eur. Resp. J. 8, 1091– 1099 (1995).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Morley, J. Cyclosporin A in asthma therapy: a pharmacological rationale. J. Autoimmunity 5 (Suppl. A), 265– 269 (1992).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Bieber, T. Topical tacrolimus (FK 506): a new milestone in the management of atopic dermatitis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 102, 555 –557 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Thompson, A. G. & Starzl, T. C. New immunosuppressive drugs: mechanistic insights and potential therapeutic advances. Immunol. Rev. 136, 71–98 (1993).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Pilewski, J. M. & Albelda, S. M. Cell adhesion molecules in asthma: homing activation and airway remodelling. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 12, 1– 3 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Weg, V. B., Williams, T. J., Lobb, R. R. & Noorshargh, S. A monoclonal antibody recognizing very late activation antigen-4 inhibits eosinophil accumulation in vivo. J. Exp. Med. 177, 561–566 (1993).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Sun, J. et al. Contribution of intracellular adhesion molecule-1 in allergen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in sensitised Brown-Norway rats. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 104, 291– 295 (1994).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Yuan, Q., Strauch, K. L., Lobb, R. R. & Hemler, M. E. Intracellular single-chain antibody inhibits integrin VLA-4 maturation and function. Biochem. J. 318, 591– 596 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Lin, K. C. et al. Selective, tight-binding inhibitors of integrin alpha4beta1 that inhibit allergic airway responses. J. Med. Chem. 42, 920–934 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Abraham, W. M. et al. Selectin blockade prevents antigen-induced late bronchial responses and airway hyperresponsiveness in allergic sheep. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159, 1205– 1214 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Kim, M. K., Brandley, B. K., Anderson, M. B. & Bochner, B. S. Antagonism of selectin-dependent adhesion of human eosinophils and neutrophils by glycomimetics and oligosaccharide compounds. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 19, 836–841 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Heinke, S., Szucs, G., Norris, A., Droogmans, G. & Nilius, B. Inhibition of volume-activated chloride currents in endothelial cells by chromones. Br. J. Pharmacol. 115 , 1393–1398 (1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Wang, L., Correia, I., Basu, S. & Theoharides, T. C. Ca2+ and phorbol ester effect on the mast cell phosphoprotein induced by cromolyn. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 371, 241 –249 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Bianco, S. et al. Inhaled loop diuretics as potential new anti-asthmatic drugs. Eur. Resp. J. 6, 130–134 (1993).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Yates, D. H. et al. Effect of acute and chronic inhaled furosemide on bronchial hyperresponsiveness in mild asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152, 892–896 ( 1995).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Haczku, A. et al. Anti-CD86 (B7. 2) treatment abolishes allergic airway hyperresponsiveness in mice. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159, 1638–1643 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Van Oosterhout, A. J. et al. Murine CTLA4-IgG treatment inhibits airway eosinophilia and hyperresponsiveness and attenuates IgE upregulation in a murine model of allergic asthma. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 17, 386–392 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. van Neerven, R. J. et al. Requirement of CD28-CD86 costimulation for allergen-specific T cell proliferation and cytokine expression. Clin. Exp. Allergy 28, 808–816 ( 1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Kon, O. M. et al. Randomised dose-ranging placebo-controlled study of chimeric antibody to CD4 (keliximab) in chronic severe asthma. Lancet 352, 1109–1113 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Schwarze, J. et al. CD8 T cells are essential in the development of respiratory syncytial virus-induced lung eosinophilia and airway hyperresponsiveness. J. Immunol. 162, 4207– 4211 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Zhang, D. H., Cohn, L., Ray, P., Bottomly, K. & Ray, A. Transcription factor GATA-3 is differentially expressed in murine Th1 and Th2 cells and controls Th2-specific expression of the interleukin-5 gene. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 21597– 21603 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Caramori, G. et al. GATA transcription factor expression in T cells, monocytes and bronchial biopsies of normal and asthmatic subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, A908 ( 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  82. Murphy, E. et al. Reversibility of T helper 1 and 2 populations is lost after long-term stimulation. J. Exp. Med. 183, 901–913 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Corne, J. et al. The effect of intravenous administration of a chimeric anti-IgE antibody on serum IgE levels in atopic subjects: efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics. J. Clin. Invest. 99, 879– 887 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Fahy, J. V. et al. The effect of an anti-IgE monoclonal antibody on the early and late phase responses to allergen inhalation in asthmatic subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155, 1828– 1834 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Coyle, A. J. et al. Central role of immunoglobulin (Ig) E in the induction of lung eosinophil infiltration and T helper 2 cell cytokine production: inhibition by a non-anaphylactoid anti-IgE antibody. J. Exp. Med. 183, 1303–1310 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Holgate, S. T., Corne, J., Jardieu, P., Fick, R. B. & Heusser, C. H. Treatment of allergic airways disease with anti-IgE. Allergy 53, 83–88 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Durham, S. R. et al. Long-term clinical efficacy of grass-pollen immunotherapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 468– 475 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Hsu, C. H. et al. Immunoprophylaxis of allergen-induced immunoglobulin E synthesis and airway hyperresponsiveness in vivo by genetic immunization. Nature Med. 2, 540–544 ( 1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Roy, K., Mao, H. Q., Huang, S. K. & Leong, K. W. Oral gene delivery with chitosan—DNA nanoparticles generates immunologic protection in a murine model of peanut allergy. Nature Med. 5, 387–391 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Yssel, H., Fasler, S., Lamb, J. & de Vries, J. E. Induction of non-responsiveness in human allergen specific type 2 helper cells. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 6, 847–852 (1994).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Norman, P. S. et al. Treatment of cat allergy with T-cell reactive peptides. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154, 1623– 1628 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Haselden, B. M., Barry Kay, A. & Larche, M. Immunoglobulin E-independent major histocompatibility complex-restricted T cell peptide epitope-induced late asthmatic reactions. J. Exp. Med. 189, 1885– 1894 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Shirakawa, T., Enomoto, T., Shimazu, S. & Hopkin, J. M. The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorder. Science 275, 77–79 ( 1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Strannegard, I. L., Larsson, L. O., Wennergren, G. & Strannegard, O. Prevalence of allergy in children in relation to prior BCG vaccination and infection with atypical mycobacteria. Allergy 53, 249–254 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Herz, U. et al. BCG infection suppresses allergic sensitization and development of increased airway reactivity in an animal model. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 102, 867–874 ( 1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Wang, C. C. & Rook, G. A. Inhibition of an established allergic response to ovalbumin in BALB/c mice by killed Mycobacterium vaccae. Immunology 93, 307–313 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. Wheeler, J. G. et al. Immune and clinical impact of Lactobacillus acidophilus on asthma. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 79, 229–233 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Sur, S. et al. Long term prevention of allergic lung inflammation in a mouse model of asthma by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides. J. Immunol. 162, 6284–6293 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Xing, Z., Ohkawara, Y., Jordana, M., Grahern, F. L. & Gauldie, J. Transfer of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene to rat induces eosinophilia, monocytosis and fibrotic lesions. J. Clin. Invest. 97, 1102 –1110 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  100. Nyce, J. W. & Metzger, W. J. DNA antisense therapy for asthma in an animal model. Nature 385, 721– 725 (1997).

    Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Barnes, P. Therapeutic strategies for allergic diseases. Nature 402 (Suppl 6760), 31–38 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1038/35037026

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/35037026

This article is cited by

Comments

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing