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Glacial ice covers around 10% of the Earth's continents. A review of the literature suggests that microbes living on glaciers and ice sheets are an integral part of both the glacial environment and the Earth's ecosystem.
Climate change is governed by changes to the global energy balance. A synthesis of the latest observations suggests that more longwave radiation is received at the Earth's surface than previously thought, and that more precipitation is generated.
The beginning of the Holocene interglacial was marked by ice-sheet melting and sea-level rise. A review of sea level and climate records identifies two sea-level jumps associated with the final drainage of glacial Lake Agassiz, and links them to an abrupt cooling event.
The growth of the smallest atmospheric particles to sizes at which they may act as seeds for cloud droplets is a key step linking aerosols to clouds and climate. A synthesis of research indicates that the mechanisms controlling this growth depend on the size of the growing particle.