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Warming temperatures driven by climate change are causing species geographic ranges to shift, but factors such as habitat characteristics and species interactions impact these changes. This Review examines range shift documentation, how shifts differ from temperature-based expectations, and the effects of range shifts on natural and human systems.
Tectonic processes can lead to the formation of semi-enclosed seas and the deposition of extensive salt deposits. This Review explores the drivers and impacts of the Mediterranean Messinian salinity crisis, including previously underconsidered impacts on the global carbon cycle.
The Southern Ocean represents a substantial carbon sink and heavily influences global carbon fluxes. This Review describes how an expanding suite of observations are providing increasing insight into the contribution of biota and plankton to the carbon cycle in the Southern Ocean.
Rainfall events are becoming less frequent but more intense with anthropogenic warming. This Review explores the consequences of these changes on plants and investigates how and why plant responses appear to broadly differ between dry and wet ecosystems.
Grapes produced for winemaking are highly susceptible to changes in climate, particularly extreme heat and drought. This Review examines the changing geography of existing and emerging winegrowing regions, and recommends adaptation measures to increasing heat and modified drought, pest and disease pressure.
The use of groundwater with high levels of geogenic contaminants, such as arsenic, has caused severe health impacts and mortality in communities globally. This Review examines the drivers and occurrence of groundwater contamination by naturally occurring arsenic, fluoride, selenium and uranium.
With continued anthropogenic warming, an ice-free Arctic (sea ice area <1 million km2) is inevitable. This Review outlines the various characteristics of an ice-free Arctic, highlighting that future emission trajectories will determine where, how frequently and how long the Arctic will be ice free each year.
Accurate and timely food production data are needed to promote food security and sustainability, but data scarcity exists across national and international levels. This Review examines data availability and reliability for crops, livestock and aquatic food production and recommends solutions to address data scarcity.
The different contributions of long-term and short-term variability to the evolution of ice sheets lead to substantial uncertainties in ice sheet models. This Review describes the response of ice sheets to oceanic, atmospheric and hydrological processes across a range of timescales.
Moderate drought occurs widely, impacting crop yield. This Review discusses crop traits that can confer drought tolerance, the role of the environment and management, and how crop models predict their potential impact on yield.
Drainage divides — the topographic boundary separating surface water flow — are dynamic features of the Earth’s surface that shape hydrological processes, sediment transport, carbon cycles and geographic connectivity of ecosystems. This Review explores the dynamics of divide migration and its implications.
Three satellite laser altimeter missions (ICESat, ICESat-2 and GEDI) have been instrumental in tracking environmental change on Earth since 2003. This Review discusses the principles of these missions and their major contributions to Earth system science.
A firn layer covers the Earth’s ice sheets. This Review outlines techniques to observe and model changes in firn properties and meltwater retention to understand how this firn layer will respond to climate change.
Coastal groundwater systems provide water resources and support ecosystems but are vulnerable to climate change and anthropogenic impacts. This Review describes the expected response of coastal groundwater systems to climatic impact-drivers, interactions with anthropogenic stressors and potential ecosystem responses.
Wind-waves have important Earth system impacts. This Review outlines observed and projected changes in wind-waves for global oceans, revealing historic and future increases in wave height across the Southern and Arctic Oceans, but decreases in the North Atlantic and North Pacific.
Earth’s climate responds to astronomical forcing cycles that occur over tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. This Review explores the distinct Earth-system responses to astronomical forcing over the pre-Cenozoic era and explains how astronomical cycles are used to calibrate geologic time.
Krill are food sources for megafauna, are drivers of carbon export and are being impacted by sea-ice declines and changing climate conditions. This Review examines changes in krill populations, habitats and behaviour in the Southern Ocean, and discusses their potential drivers and implications for fishery management in the future.
Volcanic eruptions are major natural hazards, but forecasting their activity remains challenging. This Review discusses scientific and monitoring approaches used to forecast magmatic eruptions.
Induced earthquakes can occur during several industrial activities, including geothermal developments and underground storage. This Review discusses the current physics-based understanding of induced earthquakes and the implications for forecasting, monitoring, seismic hazard and risk assessments and mitigation strategies.
Non-perennial segments of rivers undergo cycles of flowing, non-flowing and dry phases, influencing ecosystem dynamics and services across the river network. This Review describes the occurrence, ecology and future of these intermittent and ephemeral flows and highlights the importance of protecting these segments.
