Table 1 - Effects of some hormones and putative neurotransmitters on the lower esophageal sphincter and the possible sites of action
From the following article
Sphincter mechanisms at the lower end of the esophagus
Ravinder K. Mittal and Raj K. Goyal
GI Motility online (2006)
doi:10.1038/gimo14
| Site of action | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agent | Effect | Circular smooth muscle | Inhibitory neurons | Excitatory neurons | Comments |
PGE, prostaglandin E;PGF, prostaglandin F; VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide; | |||||
| Bombesin | Contraction |  | – | | Releases norepinephrine from adrenergic neurons |
| Calcitonin gene-related peptide | Relaxation | | | – | |
| Cholecystokinin | Biphasic | | | – | Inhibition overrides excitation, causes paradoxical excitation in achalasia patients |
| Dopamine | Relaxation (D2) Contraction (D1) | | – – | – – | |
| Galanin | Contraction | | – | – | |
| Gastric inhibitory polypeptide | Relaxation | ? | ? | ? | |
| Gastrin | Contraction | | – | – | |
| Glucagon | Relaxation | | – | – | Releases catecholamines from adrenal medulla |
| Histamine | Contraction | (H1) | – | – | |
| Motilin | Contraction | | – | | |
| Neurotensin | Contraction | | – | – | |
| Nitric oxide | Relaxation | | – | – | |
| Pancreatic polypeptide | Contraction | | – | | |
PGF2 | Contraction | | – | – | |
| PGE1,2 | Relaxation | | – | – | |
| Progesterone | Relaxation | – | – | ||
| Secretin | Relaxation | | – | – | |
| Serotonin | Contraction | | – | – | |
| Somatostatin | Contraction | ? | ? | ? | |
| Substance P | Contraction | | – | | |
| VIP | Relaxation | | – | – | |
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