Green technologies

Redox-active organic materials are a promising electrode material for next-generation batteries, owing to their potential cost-effectiveness and eco-friendliness. This Review compares the performance of redox-active organic materials from a practical viewpoint and discusses their potential in various post-lithium-ion-battery platforms.

This Perspective compares the attributes of nanoparticles versus microparticles as the active electrode material in lithium-ion batteries. We propose that active material particles used in future batteries should be inherently multiscale to capture the best of both worlds.

Sodium-ion batteries are an appealing alternative to lithium-ion batteries because they use raw materials that are less expensive, more abundant and less toxic. The background leading to such promises is carefully assessed in terms of cell and battery production, as well as raw material supply risks, for sodium-ion and modern lithium-ion batteries.

Increasing demand for energy-storage systems will inevitably stress the Earth’s lithium supply; thus, the research focus is shifting towards other alkali and alkali earth metals. This Review compares and connects strategies to enable different multivalent and monovalent metal-ion battery anodes, including metal anodes and intercalation-based, alloy-based and conversion-reaction-based anodes.

Solid-state batteries based on electrolytes with low or zero vapour pressure provide a promising path towards safe, energy-dense storage of electrical energy. In this Review, we consider the requirements and design rules for solid-state electrolytes based on inorganics, organic polymers and organic–inorganic hybrids.

The reliable operation of solid-state batteries requires stable or passivating interfaces between solid components. In this Review, we discuss models for interfacial reactions and relate the predictions to experimental findings, aiming to provide a deeper understanding of interface stability.

Polymers are ubiquitous in batteries as binders, separators, electrolytes and electrode coatings. In this Review, we discuss the principles underlying the design of polymers with advanced functionalities to enable progress in battery engineering, with a specific focus on silicon, lithium-metal and sulfur battery chemistries.

3D electrodes with interconnected and interpenetrating pathways enable efficient electron and ion transport. In this Review, the design and synthesis of such 3D electrodes are discussed, along with their ability to address charge transport limitations at high areal mass loading and to enable composite electrodes with an unprecedented combination of energy and power densities in electrochemical energy storage devices.

Rechargeable Li metal batteries are currently limited by electrolyte decomposition and rapid Li consumption. Li plating and stripping greatly depend on the solid electrolyte interphase formed at the Li metal–liquid electrolyte interface. This Review discusses the reactions occurring at this interface from a corrosion science perspective, highlighting the requirements for an ideal passivation layer.

Sodium batteries are promising candidates for mitigating the supply risks associated with lithium batteries. This Review compares the two technologies in terms of fundamental principles and specific materials, and assesses the performance of commercial prototype sodium cells.

Inorganic–polymer composites have emerged as viable solid electrolytes for the mass production of solid-state batteries. In this Review, we examine the properties and design of inorganic–polymer composite electrolytes, discuss the processing technologies for multilayer and multiphase composite structures, and outline the challenges of integrating composite electrolytes into solid-state batteries.

This Review discusses non-metallic charge carriers for aqueous batteries, investigating fundamental mechanisms of charge storage and electrode interactions, as well as battery design and performance.

The development of efficient, high-energy and high-power electrochemical energy-storage devices requires a systems-level holistic approach, rather than focusing on the electrode or electrolyte separately. In this Review, we discuss the interfacial reactions and ion transport in ionic-liquid-based Li-ion batteries and supercapacitors, and summarize their impact on device performance.

Batteries, as complex materials systems, pose unique challenges for the application of machine learning. Although a shift to data-driven, machine learning-based battery research has started, new initiatives in academia and industry are needed to fully exploit its potential.

Crystalline silicon solar cells are today’s main photovoltaic technology, enabling the production of electricity with minimal carbon emissions and at an unprecedented low cost. This Review discusses the recent evolution of this technology, the present status of research and industrial development, and the near-future perspectives.

Solar fuel production provides a sustainable route towards simultaneous energy harvesting and storage. However, this technology is hampered by the complexity and slow manual screening of the chemical design space to find suitable catalytic and light-harvesting materials. One solution is offered by automation, which has begun changing the landscape of material discovery and energy research.

Halide perovskites exhibit outstanding semiconductor properties and are a key component of a variety of devices, including solar cells and light-emitting diodes. This Review discusses electrical doping strategies for halide perovskites and takes a critical look at the challenges that need to be overcome to control the electronic properties of these semiconducting materials.

Metal halide perovskites (MHPs) have substantial potential for solar cell applications. This Review critically assesses recent advances in elucidating the physical and chemical activity of defects in both high-bandgap and low-bandgap MHPs, and correlates it to performance and stability losses.

The surface features of metal halide perovskites have a crucial role in determining their properties. This Review introduces the recent advances in the understanding of perovskite surfaces and surveys the surface strategies towards improving the properties of perovskite materials and the performance of perovskite optoelectronic devices.

The scalable fabrication of perovskite solar cells and solar modules requires the development of new materials and coating methods. In this Review, we discuss solution-based and vapour-phase coating methods for large-area perovskite films and examine the progress in performance and the parameters affecting large-area coatings.

Non-radiative recombination losses hinder the performance of perovskite solar cells, preventing them from reaching the Shockley–Queisser limit. This Review systematically analyses the origin and impact of non-radiative recombination losses and highlights notable advances in their characterization and mitigation.

The charge-transfer electronic states that form at the interfaces between electron-donor and electron-acceptor components have a key role in the electronic processes in organic solar cells. This Review describes the current understanding of how these charge-transfer states affect device performance.

Despite their excellent macroscopic operational parameters, halide perovskites exhibit heterogeneity in materials properties at all lateral and vertical length scales. In this Review, we discuss the nature of heterogeneity in halide perovskites and assess the impact of these non-uniformities on their optoelectronic properties and how the heterogeneity may even be beneficial for device properties.

Adding a third component into a binary blend is a promising strategy for simultaneously improving all photovoltaic parameters in organic solar cells. In this Review, we discuss the role of the third component in influencing the energetics, charge-carrier recombination and stability in ternary solar cells.

Combining low-dimensional and 3D perovskites is a promising approach to achieve stable and efficient solar cells. In this Review, we discuss the structural, optical and photophysical properties of low-dimensional perovskites, compare the stability and efficiency of 2D and 3D perovskite devices, and consider 2D/3D composites as a strategy to increase the stability of perovskite solar cells.

Defects have a key role in determining the functionality of solids and can make them powerful catalysts. This Review examines defect chemistry in metal oxides and discusses the role that charged defects and polarons have in enabling photoelectrochemical reactions.

Metal oxides are widely used in photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic systems for fuel synthesis and environmental remediation. In this Review, we examine the kinetic challenges, from charge generation to water oxidation catalysis, that determine the performance of metal oxide photo(electro)catalysts.

New zeolitic materials have shown high performance in emerging applications across diverse areas. This Review focuses on the advances in zeolite applications, including the catalytic production of hydrocarbons and oxygenates from non-petrochemical feedstocks, the efficient separation of hydrocarbon mixtures that are otherwise challenging, and host–guest assemblies with unprecedented physical properties.

In this Review, the authors analyse the fundamental concepts that govern the photocatalytic performance of organic polymer photocatalysts and discuss the challenges and future of the field of ‘soft photocatalysis’.

Natural photosynthetic systems harvest light to perform selective chemistry on atmospheric molecules such as CO₂. This Review discusses the implementation of bioinspired concepts in engineered light harvesting and catalysis.

Reducible oxides are tunable, multifunctional materials used in many applications, particularly in catalysis; their attractive properties arise from their interacting charge carriers, complex electronic structure and propensity to form mobile defects. This Review surveys theoretical methods to model and understand reducible oxides, using TiO₂ as a prototypical example.

Low-nuclearity catalysts incorporating supported metal atoms or small clusters on appropriately tailored carriers are growing in diversity and have great potential in catalysis. This Review examines progress in their synthesis and characterization towards the atomically precise design of high-performing new architectures.

Electronic waste, with printed circuit boards (PCBs) at its heart, is the fastest-growing category of hazardous solid waste in the world. New materials, in particular biobased materials, show great promise in solving some of the sustainability and toxicity problems associated with PCBs, although several challenges still prevent their practical application.

Data-driven approaches based on high-throughput capabilities and machine learning hold promise in revolutionizing human-centred materials discovery for sustainability and decarbonization. This Review examines the strengths and limitations of different traditional and emerging approaches to demonstrate their inherent connection and highlight the evolving paradigms of materials design.

Plastic debris continues to contaminate the environment, negatively impacting wildlife and ecosystems. This Review argues that polymer selection and product design must incorporate strategies for end-of-life management and strive to eliminate, or at least minimize, environmental persistence of plastic materials.

The materials community must address the greenhouse gas emissions burden of materials production. This Review assesses the potential for decarbonization of the cement, metals and petrochemical industries, revealing opportunities to strengthen the connections across industries and length scales — from the atomic scale through to materials markets — to meet climate targets.

The United Nations Climate Change Conference of the Parties, or COP26, will meet this month in Glasgow. Countries will commit to new, ambitious targets for reducing emissions this decade. Delivering on these promises will depend on the development and wide implementation of green technologies.

Meeting global emission reduction goals will require the large-scale deployment of renewable energy infrastructure and electric vehicles. Ensuring a fair and sustainable supply of the required critical primary and secondary raw materials will be essential to a greener future.

Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets are essential for the transition to clean energy and mobility. Given the burgeoning demand for neodymium and other rare earths, this Comment discusses the role of recycling and the need for government intervention in securing a sustainable rare-earth supply.

The green energy revolution is heavily reliant on raw materials, such as cobalt and lithium, which are currently mainly sourced by mining. We must carefully evaluate acceptable supplies for these metals to ensure that green technologies are beneficial for both people and planet.

The defossilization of our economy requires that materials for renewable energy conversion technologies are themselves green, renewable and circular. To this end, components such as batteries, electronic devices and electric motors should be recycled and regenerated, and produced solely from secondary raw materials.

Unrecycled post-consumer plastic waste is an enormous, growing problem. Chemical recycling to monomer (CRM) delivers recycled material without degradation in properties. This Review assesses the viability of commercial polymer CRM, the flourishing of CRM with new polymers and opportunities for the field.

Bio-based polymers that exhibit superior performance relative to petroleum-based incumbents can encourage industry adoption and offset fossil carbon use. This Review introduces performance-advantaged, bio-based polymers and highlights examples wherein superior performance is facilitated by the inherent chemical functionality of bio-based feedstocks.

The European Environmental Agency (EEA) has formulated five early warning signs to be considered by regulators when it comes to materials and substances. These warning signs reflect many concerns raised about plastics and are thus worth considering during the design and regulation of new and established polymeric materials.

Electrochemical processes enable energy-efficient desalination of water and the separation and recovery of elements. In this Review, we discuss the mechanisms and materials of this emerging generation of water-remediation technology.

This Review discusses functional Li-ceramic films for lithionic-device applications, including energy storage, sensing and neuromorphic computing.