Introduction

Nitrogen, which is a key element for plant growth and reproduction, is an essential building block of nucleic acids and proteins. In plant nitrogen metabolism, glutamine synthetase (GS) is critical for the first step of ammonium assimilation and transformation into glutamine1,2. In fact, over 95% of the ammonia available to higher plants may be assimilated via the GS/GOGAT pathway2,3. There are two GS isoforms in higher plants, cytosolic (GS1) and plastic (GS2), which have metabolic functions that do not overlap4. In diploid plants, GS1 is usually encoded by three to five genes, which are predominantly expressed in the vascular tissues and are involved in generating glutamine for intercellular N transport5. In contrast, diploid species often have a single gene encoding GS2, which is primarily found in chloroplasts and mitochondria6,7,8.

Recently, increasing evidence has demonstrated that GS is crucial for N assimilation and the yield potential of cereal crops, such as rice, wheat and maize9,10,11,12. In wheat, favorable haplotypes of GS2 were found to be associated with improved seedling growth, agronomic performance, and N uptake during vegetative growth or grain N concentration13. During study of the mini core collection (MCC) of Chinese wheat and expanded wheat varieties, it was interesting that the three TaGS2 homoeologs (TaGS2-A, -B and -D) in hexaploid wheat suffered different degrees of selection during the breeding process. Among the three homoeologs, TaGS2-B experienced rigorous selection (one haplotype was eliminated in the breeding process), TaGS2-A experienced moderate selection and TaGS2-D experienced slight selection13.

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an allohexaploid grass species (AABBDD genome, 2n = 6x = 42) that arose through hybridization of three related diploid grasses. The role of polyploidy in shaping eukaryotic evolution is particularly evident in flowering plants14. Polyploidy may benefit plants by increasing gene expression levels, organ size and flowering time as well as providing a source for novel variants15,16. Gene multiplication and redundancy result from the combination of several highly similar genomes with three possible evolutionary outcomes for homoeologous genes (homoeologs) in polyploids: retention of the original or a similar function, functional diversification and gene silencing17.

Expression divergence of homoeologs is frequently observed in wheat as well as other polyploid plant species18,19. Epigenetic mechanisms have been found to regulate the expression of homoeologs and organ-specific expression in polyploids. In wheat, only WLHS1-D functions in hexaploid wheat out of the three WLHS1 homoeologs. WLHS1-A had a structural alteration in its sequence, and WLHS1-B was predominantly silenced by cytosine methylation19. For organ-specific expression, all three TaEXPA1 homoeologs were silenced in seedling roots. In seedling leaves, TaEXPA1-A and TaEXPA1-D were expressed, but TaEXPA1-B was silenced. Transcriptional silencing of three TaEXPA1 homoeologs in roots was correlated with an increased level of H3K9 dimethylation and decreased levels of H3K4 trimethylation and H3K9 acetylation. Moreover, a higher level of cytosine methylation was detected in the promoter region of TaEXPA1-B, which may have contributed to silencing TaEXPA1-B in leaves18. During cold stress, changes in region-specific histone modification marks promoted alteration of the chromatin structure to facilitate the binding of transcription machinery for OsDREB1b expression20. Nucleosome conformation has been reported to affect spatio-temporal expression, nucleosome arrangement and hyperacetylation of histones that coordinate control of the high transcription of PetE in green shoots and its absence in roots21.

Although previous studies have revealed the important function of GS2 in N assimilation and agronomic performance in wheat13, the reason TaGS2-B encounters rigorous selection pressures in the breeding process remains unclear. Genetic evidence has indicated that deletion of TaGS2-B gene obviously influenced the height and spike number of wheat. The present study indicated that the expression of TaGS2-B was higher than TaGS2-A and TaGS2-D in leaves. Moreover, we demonstrated that epigenetic modifications and nucleosome conformation contributed to the divergent expression of the three TaGS2 homoeologs and spatial-temporal specific expression of TaGS2. Our results clarified the molecular mechanism for divergent expression of TaGS2 homoeologs, and the high expression level of TaGS2-B indicates it has an important function. Therefore, these results provide important information about the rigorous selection pressure for TaGS2-B in the breeding process.

Results

Identification of TaGS2 genes in wheat

Full-length cDNA sequences of TaGS2 homoeologs from the progenitor species of hexaploid wheat (Fig. S1) and two tetraploid wheat samples (Fig. S2) were isolated. We also isolated the full-length cDNA and genomic DNA sequences of three TaGS2 homoeologs from the winter wheat variety Kn9204. The cDNA sequences of the three TaGS2 homoeologs were all 1284 bp, with significant conservation among them and only 46 nucleotide substitution sites (Fig. S3). The sequence similarity of the deduced protein sequences was 99.84%. TaGS2-A and -D had identical amino acid sequences and only differed from the TaGS2-B sequence by two amino acids. The greatest variation was observed in the introns of the TaGS2-A, -B and -D genomic sequences (Fig. S5). Promoter regions (1000 bp regions upstream of the ATG initiation codon) of the threeTaGS2 homoeologs were also isolated for the next experiment (Fig. S4).

To investigate the function of TaGS2 in wheat, we screened for TaGS2 deletion mutants among ion beam-induced mutants of the variety Kn9204 using genomic PCR (Figs 1B and S6). After screening the mutants, the homozygous gs2-a, b and d mutants were obtained (Fig. 1A). Before further analysis, three homozygous gs2 mutants were back-crossed twice with their wild-type progenitor Kn9204, and homozygous BC2F3 mutants were used for phenotype analysis. TaGS2-B deficiency severely reduced plant height (Fig. 1C). The average height of mature gs2-b plants was nearly 24% lower than wild-type plants. Moreover, deletion of TaGS2-B led to a reduced spike number (Fig. 1D).

Figure 1: TaGS2 function is essential for a normal yield in wheat.
figure 1

(A) Phenotype of TaGS2 gene deletion mutants. (B) Identification of TaGS2 gene deletion mutants. (C) Plant height. (D) Spike number. Error bars indicate ± SE (n = 10). Asterisks indicate the significance of differences between wild-type and gs2 mutants as determined by the Student’s t-test: **P < 0.01, *P < 0.05.

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Expression patterns of TaGS2

To analyze the expression of TaGS2 homoeologs, the progenitor species of hexaploid wheat and two tetraploid wheat samples were examined. The transcription levels of the three TaGS2 homoeologs differed significantly, and the TaGS2 transcript levels were higher in the ancestor of the B genome (Z415 and TH02) compared to the progenitor species of the A genome (TMB02) and the donor of the D genome (Y199) (Fig. 2A). Moreover, the occurrence of TaGS2-B was 1.42-fold higher than TaGS2-A in the tetraploid wheat Jinying 8, but the occurrence of TaGS2-A was 2.43-fold higher than TaGS2-B in tetraploid wheat DM4 (Fig. 2B). These results suggested that the combination of the highly similar genomes influences the expression of TaGS2 homoeologs. Next, we studied TaGS2 homoeologs expression in hexaploid wheat.

Figure 2: The expression patterns of the TaGS2 homoeologs.
figure 2

(A) Divergent expression of the TaGS2 homoeologs in the leaves of 7-d-old seedlings of the progenitor species. (B) Percentage of TaGS2-A and TaGS2-B occurring in the leaves of 7-d-old seedlings of tetraploid wheat. (C) Tissue-specific expression of TaGS2 at the booting stage. (D) Divergent expression of the three TaGS2 homoeologs in the leaves of 10-d-old seedlings. (E) The expression of TaGS2 at two developmental stages. For (A,D and E), the data are means ± SD of three independent biological replicates. Asterisks indicate a statistically significant difference (Student’s t-test: **P < 0.01).

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The spatial-temporal expression of TaGS2 was examined with SYBR qRT-PCR in hexaploid wheat Kn9204. The TaGS2 transcripts were detectable in most tissues at the booting stage, with predominant expressionin the flag leaf and lower transcript levels in roots. TaGS2 was also expressed in the stem, rachis, spikes, cobs, lemma, glummelle, awn, stamens and pistils at the booting stage (Fig. 2C). To investigate the expression divergence of the three TaGS2 homoeologs, 10-d-old seedlings were used along with gene-specific primers and probes for TaqMan absolute qRT-PCR analysis (Table S1). The transcript levels of the three TaGS2 homoeologs differed significantly, with greater TaGS2-B levels than TaGS2-A and TaGS2-D in leaves (Fig. 2D). When different developmental states were considered, the TaGS2 transcript levels were higher in leaves at the seedling stage than in leaves at the booting stage (Fig. 2E).

H3K4me3 levels were positively correlated with TaGS2 transcript abundance

Previous studies have shown that epigenetic changes help maintain homoeologous expression patterns in allopolyploid plants18,19,22,23. To gain insight into the histone modification patterns of different organs at various developmental stages, the leaves and roots of 10-d-old seedlings and booting-stage leaves were chosen as starting materials.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) was performed to determine whether H3K4me3 histone modification regulated the divergent expression of the three TaGS2 homoeologs, and gene-specific primers were designed for TaGS2-A, TaGS2-B and TaGS2-D for quantitative PCR amplification (Fig. 3A). H3K4me3 levels were high near the start codon for all three TaGS2 homoeologs, with greater H3K4me3 abundance at these regions in leaves compared to roots. Additionally, enrichment was low at the promoter region located more upstream (Fig. 3B to D). When considering different developmental stages, H3K4me3 enrichment was higher in the leaves of 10-d-old seedlings compared to booting-stage leaves (Fig. 3B,C). Additionally, the H3K4me3 level was higher at the ATG initiation codon region of TaGS2-B compared withTaGS2-A and TaGS2-D (Fig. 3B). Because no differences were found in the known cis-elements in the promoter sequences of the three homoeologs, it is likely that the different levels of H3K4me3 contributed to the transcriptional silencing of TaGS2 in roots and the activation of TaGS2-B in leaves. These results indicated that H3K4me3 helped to regulate the divergent expression of the TaGS2 homoeologs in different organs and developmental stages.

Figure 3: Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis of the three TaGS2 homoeologs.
figure 3

(A) A diagram showing the three homoeologous TaGS2 genomic regions with ATG indicating the transcription start site. The black lines denote introns or intergenic regions, and the black rectangles denote coding regions. The regions analyzed for H3K4me3 enrichment in this study are marked by black bars below the diagram. (B) Leaves of 10-d-old seedlings. (C) Booting-stage leaves. (D) Roots of 10-d-old seedlings. (B) to (D) ChIP to examine the enrichment of H3K4me3 in WT. The data are means ± SD of three independent biological replicates.

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Negative expression regulation by DNA methylation contributed to the spatial-temporal expression of the three TaGS2 homoeologs

Cytosine methylation is another conserved epigenetic marker. In some cases, the amount of methylated DNA is inversely related to the amount of methylated H3K424. In the current analysis of the three TaGS2 homoeologs, there was an 82% sequence similarity for the 1000 bp region upstream of the ATG initiation codon and the first exon (Fig. S4). Sequence analysis also indicated that the TaGS2 genes had >50% GC content and contained the criteria for CpG islands. Bisulfite sequencing PCR (BSP) was used to analyze the methylation status of CG/CHG/CHH sites in the 5′ regions and exon 1 of TaGS2 (Fig. 4). Using the leaves and roots of 10-d-old seedlings and booting-stage leaves as starting materials, the methylation ratio of CG/CHG/CHH sites in the analyzed regions of TaGS2 was found to be lower in the leaves of 10-d-old seedlings (Fig. 4A to C) compared with booting-stage leaves (Fig. 4D to F). Additionally, a higher methylation ratio and more DNA methylation sites were found in roots compared to leaves (Fig. 4G to I). These data imply that the DNA methylation of the TaGS2 5′ regions and exon 1 is associated with a suppressive effect that ultimately affected the tissue- and development-specific transcription of TaGS2. A further comparison of the distribution and ratio of methylated cytosines in the 5′ regions and exon 1 showed that TaGS2-D (Fig. 4C,F and I) was hypermethylated compared with TaGS2-A (Fig. 4A,D and G) and TaGS2-B (Fig. 4B,E and H). This finding was consistent with the low expression of TaGS2-D in leaves.

Figure 4: Distribution of methylated cytosine in the 5′ region and exon 1 of the three TaGS2 homoeologs.
figure 4

(A) to (C) Leaves of 10-d-old seedlings. (D) to (F) Booting-stage leaves. (G) to (I) Roots of 10-d-old seedlings. (A,D) and (G) TaGS2-A. (B,E) and (H) TaGS2-B. (C,F) and (I) TaGS2-D. The methylation status of CG/CHG/CHH sites in the 5′ regions and exon 1 of TaGS2 homoeologous genes in different tissues and developmental stages. Genomic DNA was treated with sodium bisulfite and used for PCR with primers that amplified fragments in the 5′ regions and exon 1 of the three TaGS2 homoeologous genes. The sequences were determined in 16 clones of each gene. Sequencing data were analyzed using Kismeth software (http://katahdin.mssm.edu/kismeth/revpage.pl). The colored lines above the x-axis show the percentage of methylation at individual cytosine sites. The short bars at the bottom of the graph show the positions of the cytosines.

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Nuclease accessibility of TaGS2

After investigating histone modification and DNA methylation status, we examined the nuclease accessibility of the three TaGS2 homoeologs at two organs and development stages as a means of assessing the chromatin structure of the genes. We examined the degradation rates of the promoter and transcribed regions of the three TaGS2 homoeologs in the roots and leaves of 10-d-old seedlings and booting-stage leaves by micrococcal nuclease and DNase I (Fig. 5).

Figure 5: Accessibility changes of three TaGS2 homoeologs to endonuclease in the roots and leaves.
figure 5

The nuclei were digested with micrococcal nuclease and DNase I for an increasing time period as indicated. The amount of DNA was detected with quantitative PCR using primers specific for three TaGS2 homoeologs at the promoter and transcribed regions, respectively. Roots and leaves of 10-d-old seedlings and booting-stage leaves were measured. The data are the means ± SD of three independent biological replicates. (A) and (B) Degradation rates of three TaGS2 homoeologs with DNase I treatment. (C) and (D) Degradation rates of three TaGS2 homoeologs with micrococcal nuclease treatment.

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The degradation pattern by both micrococcal nuclease and DNase I was similar in the transcribed region of the three TaGS2 homoeologs (Fig. 5B and D). For the same TaGS2 homoeologs, the transcribed region was degraded at a slower rate in roots than in leaves, especially leaves of 10-d-old seedlings. In contrast, the degradation rates of the transcribed region of GAPDH showed no difference between roots and leaves (Fig. S8). This finding indicated that the chromatin had a closer conformation in roots compared with leaves for TaGS2 homoeologs. In the same tissues, the transcribed regions of TaGS2-A and TaGS2-D were degraded slower than TaGS2-B. It was suggested that TaGS2-D and TaGS2-A possessed a relatively close conformation compared withTaGS2-B. Overall, the most obvious difference in the chromatin structure was between TaGS2-D in roots and TaGS2-B in leaves (Fig. 5B and D).

Comparing the digestion experiments of the TaGS2 promoter region by micrococcal nuclease and DNase I had consistent results (Fig. 5A and C). In contrast to the transcribed region, the digestion rates of theTaGS2 promoter region were slow (Fig. 5). In other words, the TaGS2 promoter region processed a relatively closer conformation than the transcribed region. The promoter sequence was degraded rapidly in the leaves of two developmental stages. Whereas no obvious digestion by micrococcal nuclease and DNase I was observed in roots (Fig. 5A and C). The relative inaccessibility of the promoter region was correlated with the inactive state of TaGS2 in roots. The positioning of nucleosomes on promoters inhibited transcription because it occluded access both the transcription factors and the transcriptional machinery at their cognate sites. Thus, a silent state of TaGS2 in roots and active transcription of TaGS2 in leaves was demonstrated (Fig. 5A and C).

Discussion

Polyploidy is recognized as a major force in the evolution of flowering plants, and many important crop plants, such as common wheat, have the hallmarks of allopolyploidy. Polyploidy leading to divergent expression of transcriptional genes has been widely confirmed in the allotetraploid Arabidopsis25,26 and cotton27. These reports also indicated that silencing was achieved through epigenetic rather than genetic modifications18,19,22. For the three WLHS1 homoeologs, WLHS1-A had no function with an insertion, and WLHS1-B was predominantly silenced by cytosine methylation19. Recently, an analysis of the three TaEXPA1 homoeologous genes in hexaploid wheat demonstrated the tissue-specific expression of TaEXPA1 homoeologs was caused by epigenetic regulation18. The available data suggested that various mechanisms affected regulation of the expression and the fate of homoeologous genes, including altered gene structures and epigenetic modifications.

Hexaploid wheat has evolved from two spontaneous hybridization events. The expression of TaGS2 homoeologs was divergent in diploid, polyploid and cultivated hexaploid wheat (Fig. 2A,B and D). Bread wheat (AABBDD, 2n = 42) is one of the most important food crops and TaGS2 is a key gene involved in nitrogen assimilation. Thus, it is meaningful for us to investigate how the expression divergence of the TaGS2 homoeologs was regulated in hexaploid wheat. We found that three TaGS2 homoeologs had a similar genomic structure in the coding region with no apparent insertions or deletions detected. Using ChIP analysis, we found that higher levels of TaGS2-B (compared to TaGS2-A and TaGS2-D) were associated with increased H3K4me3 abundance (Fig. 3). Methylation of H3K9 and H3K27 are known as heterochromatic marks and are related to gene repression28. However, we did not find different enrichment of H3K9me2 between the three TaGS2 homoeologs or different tissues (Fig. S7), and no enrichment of H3K27me3 was detected in the leaves and roots of 10-d-old seedlings (data not shown). We further examined the methylation levels of the 5′ regions and exon 1 of the three TaGS2 homoeologs using BSP. Gene-specific hypermethylation was detected at TaGS2-D, which was consistent with the low expression of this gene (Fig. 4).

TaGS2 transcript levels were higher at the seedling stage, especially in the leaves, which was followed by the booting stage. Additionally, minimal expression was detected in the roots and reproductive organs, such as the stamens and pistils (Fig. 2A). Epigenetic modifications have been correlated with tissue-specific expression in plants24,29,30. Similarly, our ChIP and BSP analyses demonstrated a positive correlation between H3K4me3 and TaGS2 expression as well as a negative correlation between DNA methylation and tissue-specific expression and divergent expression at different developmental stages. These results were consistent with the hypothesis that epigenetic modifications helped to mark developmental states.

Nucleosomes positioned over cis-elements inhibited transcription by preventing transcription factors from accessing their binding sites31. Endonucleases possess different DNA digestion characteristics and exhibit different sequence specificities. Micrococcal nuclease preferentially attacks the internucleosomal linker regions but not the DNA sequences that were wrapped around the nucleosome. In contrast, DnaseI cleaves the DNA wrapped around the nucleosome at positions where the minor groove faced away from the nucleosome32. Because the digestion of DNA by both enzymes was influenced by the presence of nucleosomes, the digestion data for both enzymes should complement each other and reflect the nucleosome structure along three TaGS2 homoeologs.

The promoter region of three TaGS2 homoeologs were less accessible to digestion in roots than the same region in leaves (Fig. 5A and C), which suggested that these promoters possesses a closed conformation in roots, and this closed conformation was also correlated with the lack of basal transcription and was likely to suppress transcription in roots by preventing the binding of transcription factors. The silencing of the pea plastocyanin gene (PetE) in roots21 and closed chromatin conformation at the promoter region suppressed the transcription of OsDREB1b gene20, which was consistent with our observations. Changes in chromatin structure have been studied for many plant genes, such as Adh in Arabidopsis33, tomato proteinase inhibitor-134, Chlamydomonas HSP70A and the RbcS2 gene during transcription activation35. Wheat is an allohexaploid species, and the promoter regions of the three TaGS2 homoeologs possess similar nuclease accessibility for the same tissues, which suggests that the chromatin structure of a promoter region is important to transcription initiation for spatial-temporal reasons rather than reasons specific to TaGS2 homoelogous genes.

The chromatin conformation of the transcribed region of the three TaGS2 homoeologs and its effects on transcription was also examined in roots and leaves. In contrast to the promoter region, the transcribed regions possessed different nuclease accessibility among the three TaGS2 homoeologs in the same tissues. It is suggested that the chromatin structure of the transcribed region participated in the fine adjustment of TaGS2 homoeologs (Fig. 5B and D).

According to the ChIP, BSP and nuclease accessibility experiments, we demonstrated that the chromatin structure contributed to the expression divergence of three TaGS2 homoeologs during wheat development. Moreover, this study provides evidence that the three processes coordinated control of the transcription of TaGS2 homoeologs. Our results clarified the molecular mechanisms for divergent expression of TaGS2 homoeologs, and the high expression level of TaGS2-B indicates that it has an important function. Therefore, these results provide important information about the stronger selection pressures encountered by TaGS2-B compared with TaGS2-A and TaGS2-D in the breeding process.

Methods

Plant materials and growth conditions

The progenitor species of hexaploid wheat were used to analyze the expression of TaGS2 homoeologs, including the diploid wild einkorn wheat TMB02 (T. urartu, AA, 2n = 14), two ancestors of the B genome Z415 and TH02 (Ae. speltoides, SS, 2n = 14) and the donor of the Dgenome Y199 (Ae. tauschii, DD, 2n = 14). The tetraploid wheat DM4 (T. dicoccum, AABB, 2n = 28) and durum wheat Jinying 8 (T.durum, AABB, 2n = 28) were also used in our experiments.

The hexaploid wheat cultivar Kn9204 (wild-type) was used for experiments. Field trials were carried out at Luancheng Agro-Ecosystem Experimental Station, CAS, China, in 2014. Twenty-five seeds per line were individually sown by hand in 2 m rows that were 25 cm apart. In the laboratory, plants were grown in a phytotron at 25 °C with a 16 h light/8 h dark cycle, and 10-d-old seedlings were used for the following analyses.

Cloning of TaGS2 genes

All the PCR primers used in this study are listed in Table S1.

The full-length genomic DNA of the TaGS2 homoeologous genes were obtained by PCR-directed cloning based on the TaGS2 sequences in NCBI GenBank (GQ169685, GQ169687 and GQ16968813). The promoter regions of the TaGS2 homoeologs were cloned using the primer pairs GS2-A016 F1/GS2-A016 R1 for TaGS2-A, GS2-B017 F1/GS2-B017 R1 for TaGS2-B and GS2-D018 F2/GS2-D018 R1 for TaGS2-D. The downstream regions were cloned using WLF1-A/F1spAR1-A, F1spAF1-A/GS2R6, GS2F5/GS2R4 and GS2F2/WLR1 for TaGS2-A; WLF-B/GS2R6, GS2F5/GS2R4 and GS2F2/WLR1 for TaGS2-B; and WLF-D/GS2R6, GS2F5/GS2R4 and GS2F2/WLR1 for TaGS2-D. These fragments were then assembled to obtain the full-length sequences of the three TaGS2 genes in Kn9204.

Gene expression analyses

Total RNA from plant tissues was extracted using TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen). The first-strand cDNA was synthesized from DNase I-treated total RNA using the PrimeScript RT Reagent Kit (TaKaRa) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

For the expression of TaGS2 homoeologs in tetraploid wheat, leaves of 7-d-old seedlings were collected for RNA extraction. RT-PCR products were purified and cloned into the T-vector. About fifty clones of each tetraploid wheat material were sequenced to distinguish between TaGS2-A and TaGS2-B. The occurrence of each TaGS2 homoeolog transcript was determined according to the number of corresponding clones. The primers used for RT-PCR were 5′-ATGGCGCAGGCGGTGGTG-3′ and 5′-TCATACCTTCAGCGCCAGCTTCTTG-3′.

For TaqMan absolute quantification real-time RT-PCR analysis, leaves of 10-d-old seedlings were collected for RNA extraction, and the cDNA sequences from the three TaGS2 genes were cloned into pEASY-T according to the GenBank data (GQ169685, GQ169687 andGQ169688), which corresponded to TaGS2-A, -B and -D. Plasmid DNA was used to prepare absolute standards. A260 readings were used for the concentration measurements and converted to the number of copies using the molecular weight of the DNA. Quantitative PCR was performed using the Applied Biosystems 7500 real-time PCR system with TaqMan gene expression probes for TaGS2-A, -B and -D. The wheat β-Tubulin gene (U76745.1) was used as an internal reference. Each experiment was repeated twice with independent samples. The primer sequences that were used are listed in Table S1.

Relative quantification real-time RT-PCR analysis was performed in triplicate using the ABI7500 system and the SYBR RT-PCR kit (TaKaRa). Leaves of 10-d-old seedlings and tissues at the booting stage were collected for RNA extraction and qRT-PCR assays. The relative transcript level was calculated from three replicates using the comparative Ct method after normalization to the β-Tubulin control. The primer sequences that were used are listed in Table S1.

ChIP

ChIP was performed as previously described36. Leaf tissue was completely ground in liquid nitrogen and cross-linked in 1% formaldehyde (Sigma-Aldrich) for 10 min on ice. The chromatin was pelleted by centrifugation and sonicated into ~500 bp DNA fragments. The lysate was pre-cleared with 50 mL protein-A agarose beads/salmon sperm DNA (Millipore) for 1 h, then incubated with anti-H3K4me3 (Abcam) antibodies overnight. The anti-H3K4me3 antibodies were used at 5 mg per 0.5 g of leaf tissue. The bound chromatin was purified using columns from the Qiagen plasmid extraction kit. Real-time PCR was conducted in triplicate on the input with no antibody control and antibody-bound DNA. Homoeologous gene-specific primers were designed as follows: qPCR-A-F1/qPCR-A-R1, qPCR-A-F2/qPCR-A-R2, qPCR-A-F3/qPCR-A-R3, qPCR-A-F4/qPCR-A-R4, qPCR-A-F5/qPCR-A-R5, qPCR-A-F6/qPCR-A-R6; qPCR-B-F1/qPCR-B-R1, qPCR-B-F2/qPCR-B-R2, qPCR-B-F3/qPCR-B-R3, qPCR-B-F4/qPCR-B-R4, qPCR-B-F5/qPCR-B-R5, qPCR-B-F6/qPCR-B-R6; qPCR-D-F1/qPCR-D-R1, qPCR-D-F2/qPCR-D-R2, qPCR-D-F3/qPCR-D-R3, qPCR-D-F4/qPCR-D-R4, qPCR-D-F5/qPCR-D-R5, qPCR-D-F6/qPCR-D-R6 (Table S1). Three biological replicates were conducted for each sample to ensure reproducibility.

Bisulfite sequencing

Genomic DNA was isolated from the leaves and roots of 10-d-old seedlings and from the booting-stage flag leaves using the DNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen). The EZ DNA Methylation-Gold Kit was used for bisulfite treatment of genomic DNA according to the manufacturer’s instructions (ZYMO Research). The bisulfite-treated DNA was used for PCR amplification, and the clones were randomly sequenced. The primer sets were designed using Methyl Primer Express Software V1.0 (Applied Biosystems). Homoeologous gene-specific primers were designed as follows: BSP-A-F1/BSP-A-R1, BSP-A-F2/BSP-A-R2, BSP-A-F3/BSP-A-R3, BSP-A-F4/BSP-A-R4; BSP-B-F1/BSP-B-R1, BSP-B-F2/BSP-B-R2, BSP-B-F3/BSP-B-R3, BSP-B-F4/BSP-B-R4; BSP-D-F1/BSP-D-R1, BSP-D-F2/BSP-D-R2, BSP-D-F3/BSP-D-R3, BSP-D-F4/BSP-D-R4, BSP-D-F5/BSP-D-R5 (Table S1). The PCR products were cloned into the pGEM-T plasmid vector (Promega) and sequenced using vector-specific primers. These fragments were subsequently assembled to obtain the 5′ region sequences of the three TaGS2 genes. Sequencing data were analyzed using Kismeth software37, http://katahdin.mssm.edu/kismeth/revpage.pl).

Enzyme accessibility assay

Enzyme (MNase and DNase I) accessibility assay to monitor chromatin remodelling in three TaGS2 homoeologs was done as described by Chua and Brown21. Nuclei from 0.125 g roots and leaves of 10-d-old and booting-stage seedlings were digested with MNase (15 U/ml) and DNase I (2.5 U/ml) for 0, 10, 20 and 40 min. Three replicates of each nuclease treatment were performed and analyzed by quantitative PCR. The specific primers of the TaGS2 homoeologs promoter region were designed as BSP-A-F1/BSP-A-R1, BSP-B-F1/BSP-B-R1, and BSP-D-F1/BSP-D-R1. The specific primers of the TaGS2 homoeologs transcribed region were designed as BSP-A-F6/BSP-A-R6, BSP-B-F6/BSP-B-R6, and BSP-D-F6/BSP-D-R6. The amount of PCR product obtained for the different digestion time points was normalized with the amount of product present at the zero time point.

Additional Information

How to cite this article: Zhang, W. et al. Chromatin modification contributes to the expression divergence of three TaGS2 homoeologs in hexaploid wheat. Sci. Rep. 7, 44677; doi: 10.1038/srep44677 (2017).

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