We propose the concept of “animal capital” to acknowledge animals’ contributions beyond material value, essential for human survival. Despite humans relying on 50,000 species, interaction is limited to a few, destabilizing ecosystems and increasing risks like food insecurity and pandemics. Recognizing animal capital’s four components—material, natural, social, and cultural—can drive better investment in biodiversity, aiding in achieving United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and ensuring both human and animal survival.

Earth hosts approximately eight million animal species, yet humans primarily engage with around a dozen, mainly for food and companionship. This limited interaction poses risks. Concentrating resources on a few species harms biodiversity, destabilizing ecosystems1 and elevating the threat of food insecurity and pandemics. This biodiversity decline is rooted in the global economic system’s failure to properly value biodiversity’s benefits, leading to inadequate animal protection2. With one million species potentially at risk of extinction among the eight million on Earth, safeguarding animal capital aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the IPBES Nature Futures Framework3. Recognizing animals’ multifaceted contributions to society is crucial, acknowledging their roles not just as food but as vital natural and cultural agents, paralleling past recognition of human contributions.

Human capacity for community contribution is often framed as ‘human capital'4 in economics. Enhancing human capital, through measures like improved education and healthcare access, fosters long-term economic development. Nevertheless, an individual’s societal contribution is not confined to skills. Bourdieu emphasized the role of social and cultural activities in human well-being. While society acknowledges social and cultural capital for humans, there is a growing call to extend similar recognition to animals.

Animal contributions to human societies can be encapsulated as ‘animal capital.’ Past discussions have primarily focused on animals’ forced use in areas like food production and experimentation5. However, animals offer value beyond mere material gain; they contribute via natural, social, and cultural dimensions but also have intrinsic value. We propose a four-component framework for animal capital, aligning each component with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, Table 1). Developed through interdisciplinary discussions among a biologist, an economist, and a philosopher specializing in animal ethics, this framework addresses contemporary global challenges and aims to shape a more desirable future.

Table 1 How the four animal capitals advance food security and help meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Full size table

The Four Animal Capitals

Animal material capital

Animal material capital encompasses direct benefits humans obtain from animals as products, historically driven by extractive practices like meat consumption (SDG 1-3). Yet, their contribution extends beyond meat, including the sustainable use of resources like milk, wool, and eggs, vital for some communities in harsh conditions as with severe droughts or living in deserts (SDG 1-3). Social and technological advancements, particularly in agriculture, have reduced the need for direct animal exploitation (SDG 8-9). Plant-based options, flexitarianism, and improved animal welfare laws reflect efforts to refine animal farming, akin to the 3 R principles in animal experimentation6 (SDG 16-17). Cultured meat development showcases how we can harness animal material capital with minimal harm and environmental impact (SDG 11-15). However, we acknowledge, that further development of this technology is required before it would be able to contribute to any SDGs. Embracing sustainable practices optimizes animal material capital for long-term benefits without compromising animal welfare and environmental sustainability.

Animal social capital

Social capital, crucial for human well-being, extends to animals, especially pets, benefiting human health (SDG 3). Pets enhance human interactions by promoting physical activity, fostering social networks, and boosting emotional well-being, potentially reducing drug dependence and environmental pollution (SDG 6, 10, 11-15). Moreover, animals directly contribute to human development, nurturing children’s soft skills, fostering empathy, and aiding in education (SDG 4). Integrating animals into urban planning and policies enhances human-nature connectedness7 (SDG 11, 16). Human-wild animal cooperation, inspired by native practices, promotes mutual benefit8,9 (SDG 8, 10). Animals in our communities represent social capital, reducing agricultural and urban environmental impacts (SDG 12-15). Providing shelter, food, and healthcare to pets or farm animals creates a mutually beneficial relationship, where both humans and animals derive physical and emotional benefits from their social bonds.

Animal natural capital

Animals contribute significantly to human societies by providing ecosystem services, addressing climate change, and combating food insecurity (SDG 6-7, 11-15). For instance, rewilding predators offers socioeconomic benefits surpassing farming costs10, while elephants and whales aid in carbon storage11 (SDG 6-7, 11-15). These services are challenging to quantify and likely underestimated12, leading to calls for human-free nature reserves like the Half-Earth project13. Studying wild animals yields insights into energy management and survival strategies14, benefiting human progress (SDG 3, 6-7, 11-15). Natural capital includes animals’ roles as bioindicators and pollinators, supporting local ecosystems and contributing globally to maintain planetary boundaries15 (SDG 3, 6-7, 11-15). Biodiversity safeguards climate resilience and food security by limiting invasive species’ expansion. Species diversity mitigate issues like biogeochemical flows, freshwater changes, and ocean acidification (SDG 6, 11-15). Safeguarding animals’ natural capital is vital in combating environmental degradation and securing a sustainable future for all life.

Animal cultural capital

Cultural capital denotes knowledge, behaviours, and skills showcasing cultural competence and social status. Preserving local animal cultures has gained attention16, as the recent calls from UNESCO to safeguard ape cultural behaviour demonstrate. Animal traditions are vital, extending beyond economic benefits, fostering education, and innovation, including food by learning directly from observing animal cultures (SDG 4, SDG 9). Animal cultures hold both intrinsic and extrinsic value, aiding evolutionary research and that aims to understand human origins (SDG 4, 5). Animal observation reveals essential behaviours, from instinctive eating to employing plants for medicinal purposes based on ancestral knowledge17,18. For example, Afromonum fruits, which are ingested by chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas, contain antimicrobial properties and are sold for medicinal use in the Bwindi region. Animal behaviour and culture also play pivotal roles in ecosystem services, enabling food extraction, dispersal, and pollination. Native Navajos attribute knowledge of Ligusticum porteri’s properties to bears (SDG 3, 5, 10). Use of leaves of a liana (Fibreaurea tinctorial) to treat a wound in Sumatran orangutan reveal antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, antioxidant, and anticarcinogenic biological activities19. Learning from animals, as indigenous people have done for generations, can inspire sustainable food practices20.

Advancing Food Systems Beyond Conventions

The animal-capital framework offers a more comprehensive perspective on animals than traditional food systems frameworks. While conventional frameworks focus mainly on food production, distribution, and consumption, the animal-capital framework takes a multidimensional approach, acknowledging animals’ rich contributions to society and their intrinsic value. It transcends anthropocentrism, recognizing that animals’ worth is not solely based on their utility to humans but involves the interests of both humans and animals. This approach highlights the importance of evaluating these interests case by case in human-animal interactions, as they vary across situations. Interests at play include 1. Human Interests: Humans value animals for roles in agriculture, entertainment, companionship, or research. The perceived value of an animal can differ based on whether it is seen as livestock, a pet, or a subject of study. 2. Animal Interests: Animals have their own interests, including well-being, freedom from suffering, and the ability to exhibit natural behaviors. These interests may conflict with certain human activities like factory farming or invasive research. 3. Mutual Interests: Some interactions are mutually beneficial, such as therapy animals providing emotional support to humans while receiving care and companionship in return. This nuanced perspective underscores the need to consider diverse interests in every human-animal interaction, moving beyond a one-size-fits-all approach to better address the complexities of our relationships with animals.

Interests in human-animal interactions are dynamic and context-dependent. Policies that consider these fluid interests include tailored animal welfare regulations, ethical treatment in animal industries, and species-specific conservation. The following components of the framework acknowledge animals as sentient beings, aiming for a balance that respects their worth, promotes ethical treatment, and fosters sustainable coexistence:

Multidimensional Approach

The framework outlines four dimensions of animal capital: material, social, natural, and cultural. It reveals animals’ diverse contributions beyond mere material use, aiding in recognizing the potential benefits of improved animal protection. It also helps identify trade-offs between these dimensions in our complex relationships with animals.

Focus on Sustainability

The framework promotes sustainability by protecting animals and habitats, preserving biodiversity, and combating climate change. It defines holistic sustainability goals, addressing human, animal, and mutual interests, proposing policies that would make the SDGs less anthropocentric.

Recognition of Animal Welfare and Well-being

Unlike conventional frameworks, the animal-capital framework prioritizes animals’ welfare and well-being for their intrinsic value. It embraces the OneWelfare concept, addressing both animal and human well-being, beyond just their interconnected health in OneHealth.

Integration of Animal Behaviour and Culture

This framework pioneers valuing animal behavior and culture for both intrinsic and extrinsic worth. Unlike conservation policies focused on species, it appreciates the irreplaceable cultural value in animal and human communities, enriching human education, innovation, and evolutionary understanding.

Holistic View of Human-Animal Interactions

The framework promotes harmonious coexistence, recognizing animals’ intrinsic value and interconnectivity, fostering ethical, sustainable, and interconnected relationships between humans and animals.

The animal-capital framework provides a multifaceted perspective on our relationship with animals, emphasizing the importance of evaluating their interests, which sets the stage for the following messages for the food systems community.

Messages for Food Systems Community

The following messages are aimed at the wider food system community, urging them to reconsider their perspectives on animals and embrace the animal capital framework.

Rethink Animal Contributions beyond anthropomorphism

Move beyond viewing animals solely as food sources and acknowledge their multifaceted contributions to human societies. Recognise the significance of animals in social, cultural, and ecological aspects of food systems. First, we need to consider animals’ contributions to society beyond their utility to humans, advocating for a broader perspective like ecocentrism. Second, we need to point out that only humans have moral principles towards other animal species, raising complexities in evaluating animal capital, maybe introducing the concept of vulnerability to redefine animal capital, highlighting the interdependence between humans and animals, transcending the traditional hierarchy between species and utility.

Promote Sustainable Food Innovations

Embrace sustainable practices and innovations, such as plant-based alternatives and cultured meat, to reduce direct exploitation of animals while ensuring food security and affordability (SDG 1, 2).

Enhance Human Well-being

Recognize animals’ positive influence on human well-being, especially as pets. Encourage their integration into urban settings to enhance human-nature connection and promote healthier communities (SDG 3, 11). Note that this may vary by species, and it doesn’t apply universally due to prey-predator dynamics.

Preserve Animal Knowledge

Recognise the value of animal cultures and behaviours as educational resources. Preserve local animal traditions, fostering respect for diverse perspectives and contributing to sustainable food innovation (SDG 4, 5).

Protect Ecosystems and Biodiversity

Preserve animal habitats and behaviours to maintain ecosystem services, clean water, and climate resilience. Recognise the vital role of animals in climate action and sustainable development (SDG 6, 13, 15).

Collaborate for a Sustainable Future

Unite scientists, policymakers, practitioners, and citizens to work together in protecting animal capital and achieving broader sustainability goals (SDGs).

Consider all interests in case of conflicts

When conflicts of interests emerge between humans and animals, consider all interests at stake, not only human ones. When conflicts are inevitable, think about the merits of respective interests (e.g., is a practice profitable to humans justified given the burden it imposes on animals?) and, if human interests prevail, find the least damaging options (e.g., sterilizing wild animals to avoid overpopulation instead of killing, vaccinate animals instead of culling them in case of zoonotic outbreak).

By adopting these messages, the food system community can foster a more inclusive, sustainable, and ethical approach to human-animal interactions, ultimately contributing to a healthier planet and more resilient societies.

Conclusion

Today, the recognition of animal capital as only material, primarily meat, is diminishing as people realize animals possess diverse value beyond their utility to humans. To protect animal capital, four essential societal actions must be taken: 1. Enforcing or Establishing Legislation: Robust legal measures are crucial to safeguard animals, protecting their well-being and intrinsic value, both as species and individuals. 2. Preserving Animal Behaviors, Cultures, and Languages: Animals’ unique behaviors, cultures, and languages contribute to human education, innovation, species conservation, and ecosystem sustainability. Efforts to preserve and respect these aspects of animal capital promote a deeper understanding of their roles. 3. Establishing Social and Economic Mechanisms: Developing policies prioritizing animal welfare and sustainable practices is vital. This includes reducing animal exploitation while ensuring sustainable food production and resource use. 4. Uniting Scientists, Practitioners, and Citizens: Collaborative efforts among scientists, practitioners, and citizens are essential to advocate for sustainable practices, protect animal habitats, and raise awareness about the significance of animal capital in achieving long-term ecological and societal stability. Working with animals is paramount to create a sustainable way of living and ensure the preservation of their multifaceted contributions to our and their world.