Arising from Buckley, R. C. & Cooper, M. A. Mental health contribution to economic value of surfing ecosystem services. npj Ocean Sustainability 2(1) (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44183-023-00027-5

‘Blue spaces’ are natural or built environments centered around water, such as oceans, lakes, canals, or rivers2. Over the last decade, ‘blue spaces’ research has grown exponentially, in part, as an evolution from an existing body of knowledge on ‘green spaces’3. Despite sharing similarities, and often overlapping geographically, blue and green spaces are different in many ways, including their potential to improve human health and well-being4. We commend Buckley and Cooper1 for bringing attention to the positive mental health outcomes derived from recreational surfing, which they calculated based on previous data associated with visits to national parks. Here, we would like to offer some reflections drawing from recent research highlighting the particularities of surfing and natural blue spaces, for their potential to enhance human well-being. As the UN 2021-2030 Oceans Decade unfolds, we concur with Buckley and Cooper1 on the need to consider recreational surfing as an important catalyst for sustainability and resilience among coastal communities across the world.

The importance of blue and green spaces for health and well-being

The importance of blue spaces to society is increasingly recognized by community members, urban planners, health practitioners, and scholars across the world2,5. Paradoxically, the accelerated drive to develop the ’blue economy’ often threatens the very targets it aims to safeguard: marine sustainability and human well-being6. Surfers have been found to play a unique role in human-ocean interactions for their impacts (positive and negative) on the environment7, as well as the derived benefits, including ocean literacy8 and improved physical and mental health2. Previous works have calculated certain market and non-market values associated with ‘surfing ecosystems’, but to date, no study has systematically quantified the human health benefits derived from recreational surfing9. Buckley and Cooper1 estimate the value of stress reduction from surfing to be US $5,000 per person, per year, resulting from enhanced workplace productivity and reduced use of mental healthcare resources. This work represents a novel advance in the field of surf research. However, the underlying assumptions are based on the authors’ previous work on visits to national parks, which are only an approximate estimate of the benefits of surfing10. While few studies have systematically assessed the health effects of blue spaces compared to green spaces4, we contend that surf-derived benefits are distinct from visits to national parks.

Contrasting with the widespread distinction between green and blue spaces in the literature11, surf-derived benefits are likely to be a combination of blue and green space effects, given that both spaces often converge in coastal settings. Besides wave-riding, enjoyment from surfing is typically influenced by land-based features of the surrounding surfing ecosystem7, with previous evidence pointing to surfers’ strong preferences for high-quality, pristine natural environments12. In addition to exposure to ‘green’ environments, blue spaces have been found to facilitate therapeutic outcomes for people suffering from an array of physical and mental health conditions, including children and youth in need of social and emotional support, youth with a physical disability, military service members, cancer survivors, and adults recovering from addiction2. Nichols13 coined the term ‘blue mind’, to refer to the positive neuropsychological changes associated with experiences in water.

The benefits of surfing as therapy and recreation

Based in Australia, our work with children and adolescents14 shows that surf therapy can support improvements in symptoms of mental ill-health, specifically, symptoms of depression, anxiety, peer relationship problems, and hyperactivity/inattention in the short term. Importantly, we found that surf therapy is both feasible and acceptable to youth and their families as a means for addressing mental health concerns14 and managing chronic conditions, such as cystic fibrosis (CF)15. Our research found that, by providing exposure to moving salty water and physical exertion, surfing was beneficial to patients with CF15. Australian doctors reported that patients with CF who surf have better lung health, which led to positive flow-on effects on the physical and psychological well-being of both patients and their carers. Our observations also noted mental health and skill-based benefits for staff and volunteers facilitating the surf therapy programs, adding to recent evidence on the causal effects of volunteering on improved well-being16. We are now exploring the effects on the well-being of a family-based surf intervention for children and adolescents with other chronic health conditions, including type 1 diabetes, burn injuries, and arthritis17. Although surf-based therapies may only yield modest aggregate economic value at regional or national scales (due to small subsets of participating populations), the known benefits to patients and their families warrant careful consideration in cost-effectiveness evaluations of clinical therapies.

Our previous work18,19 has also shown that blue spaces are an important setting for supporting children’s health, development, and environmental consciousness. Parents perceived the beach as promoting children’s physical activity, both in and around the water. Blue spaces were found to be a positive place for young children’s socio-emotional development, positively impacting mental health through restoration, a place to explore risk-taking and build resilience, as well as contributing to a sense of identity. Furthermore, we found participants perceived blue spaces as biodiverse, potentially prompting environmental awareness and pro-environmental behaviors, such as picking up litter.

In addition to surf-based therapy, our ongoing research aims to gain a systematic understanding of well-being benefits among the general surfing population. Between February and May 2023, we administered an online survey, yielding 569 valid responses from Australian surfers20. Our results indicate that over 75% of respondents agreed that surfing has a positive impact on their physical and mental health, as well as their ability to deal with stress and foster social relationships. Our survey also asked participants to rate their subjective well-being using the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI), an average score across seven measures of individual satisfaction, on a 0–100 scale21. The PWI has been endorsed by the Australian Government, the WHO, and the OECD22 and is the measure used by Buckley et al.10 in their estimation of the economic value of improved mental health through visits to national parks. We found that surfers report significantly higher (p < 0.0002) PWI scores (mean PWI = 77.6, s.d. = 13.2, n = 569) than the Australian general population23 (mean PWI = 75.2, s.d. = 13.7, n = 1902) (Fig. 1). The 2.3% difference in PWI between surfers and the general population is within the range reported by Buckley et al.10 for park visits (ΔPWI = 2.2–5.7%). The impact of sampling approaches and population characteristics would need to be further explored. Priorities for future research include quantifying well-being gains for Australian surfers in economic terms, following the method employed by Buckley et al.10.

Fig. 1: Personal well-being average scores (0–100) for individual satisfaction questions (left) and PWI by age (right), for the Australian national population and Australian surfers.
figure 1

See details on methods and demographics on surfers’ data in Manero et al.20.

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Whilst only 7.4% of surfing respondents were aged 65+, their PWI scores exceeded the Australian national average, for the same age group, by 2.39 percentage points (Fig. 1). This sustained positive outcome in later stages of life is consistent with evidence demonstrating the effects of vigorous exercise in reducing stress, pain, insomnia and depression24. A unique aspect of surfing compared to other physical activities is the ability to allow for continuous engagement in intense exercise in a relatively non-weight-bearing environment. Frank et al.25 found that when compared to an age-matched sample of physically active non-surfers, surfers aged 60 and over presented better muscular contraction stability and postural sway—two key indicators of quality of life as we age. Thus, it is likely that surfers benefit from the sport in a way that most visitors to national parks would not. Even in unconventional surf destinations, such as Jæren, Norway26, surfers have been found to experience heightened moods and reduced stress–possibly intensified as a result of cold water exposure27.

Like other physical activities involving social interactions, surfing can contribute to greater self-confidence, improved resilience, and fewer depressive symptoms28. Social groups centered around surfing, such as boardriders clubs, community organizations (e.g., surfingmums.com), and environmental advocacy groups (e.g. surfrider.org) can foster mutual support among members and a sense of belonging. Social bonds initiated and strengthened through surfing communities28 are different from what would be experienced through individual visits to national parks1. Despite surfing being an individual sport, our PWI results show that ‘community connectedness’ is the well-being measure where Australian surfers outperform the national average by the largest margin, i.e., 5.1 percentage points23 (Fig. 1).

Health risks, broader considerations, and future research directions

We also acknowledge that surfing can entail adverse personal and social outcomes. Because waves are a limited resource and non-excludable (anyone can try to gain access)29, there is often competition among surfers, resulting in contentious and stressful interactions in the avid pursuit of ‘catching waves’. Protectionist attitudes among local residents, especially in overcrowded surf destinations, have been found to trigger confrontations and even escalate to physical abuse30. Other factors, such as the risk of sun-induced skin damage, acute injury31, or shark attacks32, may impact surfers’ well-being in different ways to the experiences of visitors to national parks1.

Ideally, future research to understand surf-derived well-being impacts would include physiological data, which can be used to systematically assess bio-physical health parameters, such as blood pressure, heart rates, and stress levels33. However, because in-nature activities contribute to human health in multiple ways11, it can be difficult to discern the specific effects of surfing from the benefits of general exposure to ocean-based environments. Artificial wave pools, where surfing waves are mechanically generated within a man-made environment, offer a promising setting for exploring the distinct effects of wave-riding, in the absence of influences from natural blue and green spaces34.

In summary, our exploration into the intersection of surfing, blue spaces, and human well-being highlights the distinct benefits derived from surfing, setting them apart from those associated with visits to national parks1. Differentiating factors include being in and around water, remarked improvements in child health, involvement in vigorous physical activity, and enhanced social interactions. In addition to the positives, it is crucial to acknowledge surfing’s potential stressors, such as overcrowding and safety concerns. We commend Buckley and Cooper1 for drawing attention to the positive mental health outcomes associated with recreational surfing. At the same time, we recommend that future research is based on surfer-specific data to uncover the unique aspects of surfing as a therapeutic and health-promoting activity. We expect this growing body of knowledge to contribute to the global recognition of surfing ecosystems as catalysts for greater sustainability and resilience for coastal communities worldwide.