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  • Review Article
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Towards a process-based understanding of rifted continental margins

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment volume 4, pages 166–184 (2023)Cite this article

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Abstract

Interactions between tectonic, magmatic, sedimentary and hydrothermal processes during rifting and break-up of continental lithosphere lead to a variety of rifted margin types. As potential reservoirs for mineral deposits and native hydrogen, and as sites for CO2 storage and generation of geothermal energy, rifted margins are likely to have a key role in the future transition to a carbon-neutral economy. In this Review, we discuss the wide variability of rifted margin anatomy in terms of the processes that shape them. We demonstrate that observations combined with models can provide a process-based understanding of margin evolution that allows any given region to be understood more holistically than with a static end-member type (magma-rich versus magma-poor) classification. Many margins show intermediate characteristics between those end-members. Even within end-member types, there are substantial structural variations, which are shaped by the feedbacks between inheritance, deformation, sedimentation, magmatism and fluid flow. A better understanding of these feedbacks is required to assess the potential of margins to support the carbon-neutral economy. Integration of observations and modelling will help to de-risk exploration of these environments. In particular, margins need to be characterized by integrated geophysical studies, including improved wide-angle seismic velocity models with closely spaced instruments together with advanced numerical modelling techniques.

Key points

  • During rifting, interactions between tectonic, sedimentary, magmatic, hydrothermal and surface processes modulated by the initial lithospheric structure and extension velocity lead to a wide variety of margins, where magma-rich and magma-poor margins are only the end-members of a poorly defined spectrum.

  • Magma-poor margins form where extension velocities are in the ultra-slow range (≤20 mm yr−1 full spreading), or where the mantle is originally cold or depleted. These margins are characterized by large brittle faults, minor or practically absent synrift magmatism, and exhumation of the mantle following crustal break-up at the continent–ocean transition.

  • Magma-rich margins are associated with excess magmatism during rifting, which is mainly a function of high mantle temperature associated with plume impact. The relative timing between continental thinning and plume impact, as well as the lithospheric thickness variations around the impact site, determines the final amount of magmatism observed along the margin and whether it is subaerial or submarine.

  • Unlike the two end-members described above, intermediate margins exhibit an abrupt ocean–continent transition with no mantle exhumation, and abundant magmatic rocks, but no seaward-dipping reflectors. Their structure indicates that opening and break-up were accommodated by the interplay of tectonic and magmatic processes.

  • Numerical models have shown how the inherited lithosphere–asthenosphere temperature and composition, in combination with extension velocity, influence margin width and asymmetry, fault geometry and distribution, sedimentary infill and magmatism.

  • Evaluation of the potential for rifted margins to contribute to a carbon-neutral economy will require integrated knowledge of the tectonic, chemical, hydrological and biological processes that shape them. In particular, further understanding the interactions between fluid flow at short timescales and lithosphere deformation, melt transport, and sedimentation over long, geological timescales is necessary.

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Fig. 1: Global distribution of rifted margins.
Fig. 2: The anatomy and wide-angle P-wave seismic velocity of different margin types.
Fig. 3: Formation of seaward-dipping reflectors (SDRs) in the South and North Atlantic.
Fig. 4: Effect of decreasing initial lithospheric strength in tectonic and sedimentary architecture and melting.
Fig. 5: Simulating rift dynamics at the fault-block scale.
Fig. 6: Potential economic resources and processes at rifted margins.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank J. Garcia Pintado who contributed to building the numerical models presented here, and L. Mezri and R. Li who helped with some of the figure drafting. M. Prada and I. Merino contributed to draft versions of figures in Box 1. M.P.G. was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany’s Excellence Strategy EXC-2077 — 390741603.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Marum Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, Bremen Universität, Bremen, Germany

    Marta Pérez-Gussinyé

  2. Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK

    Jenny S. Collier

  3. Sciences de la Terre et Technologies de l’Environnement, IFP Energies Nouvelles, Rueil-Malmaison, France

    John J. Armitage

  4. Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Copenhagen, Denmark

    John R. Hopper

  5. Key Laboratory of Ocean and Marginal Sea Geology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China

    Zhen Sun

  6. Barcelona Center for Subsurface Imaging, ICM, CSIC, Barcelona, Spain

    C. R. Ranero

  7. ICREA, Barcelona, Spain

    C. R. Ranero

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  1. Marta Pérez-Gussinyé
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  2. Jenny S. Collier
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  4. John R. Hopper
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Contributions

M.P.G. took the lead in writing a first draft of the article. All authors contributed to the conceptualization, writing and figure drafting.

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Correspondence to Marta Pérez-Gussinyé.

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Supplementary Information

43017_2022_380_MOESM2_ESM.mp4

Supplementary Movie 1. Evolution of Model 1. Top: zoom at the rift centre. Bottom: more general view of model. Red shade is plastic (brittle) strain rate and blue is ductile strain rate. Grey shading shows accumulated plastic (brittle) strain and represents areas where faulting occurred. Sediments are colour-coded by age since the start of rifting: in rainbow colours are sediments deposited during rifting and in white to red those deposited after breakup. Blue line marks the 1021 Pa s iso-viscosity line. Thin dotted black lines are isotherms. Red dashed line shows a prediction of the location and thickness of underplated magmatic material, where the line is on top of the Moho, then the thickness of the underplated body is zero. In the model it is assumed that the magma produced in a time step is instantaneously advected to the area of highest strain rate in the Moho (ref. 146). Note that, in the model, the magma is only underplated, but in nature it will intrude into and extrude from the crust, thus the model only gives a representation of the areas where magmatic products would be present and their total thickness.

43017_2022_380_MOESM3_ESM.mp4

Supplementary Movie 2. Evolution of Model 2. Top: zoom at the rift centre. Bottom: more general view of model. Red shade is plastic (brittle) strain rate and blue is ductile strain rate. Grey shading shows accumulated plastic (brittle) strain and represents areas where faulting occurred. Sediments are colour-coded by age since the start of rifting: in rainbow colours are sediments deposited during rifting and in white to red those deposited after breakup. Blue line marks the 1021 Pa s iso-viscosity line. Thin dotted black lines are isotherms. Red dashed line shows a prediction of the location and thickness of underplated magmatic material, where the line is on top of the Moho, then the thickness of the underplated body is zero. In the model it is assumed that the magma produced in a time step is instantaneously advected to the area of highest strain rate in the Moho (ref. 146). Note that, in the model, the magma is only underplated, but in nature it will intrude into and extrude from the crust, thus the model only gives a representation of the area where magmatic products would be present and their total thickness.

43017_2022_380_MOESM4_ESM.mp4

Supplementary Movie 3. Evolution of Model 3. Top: zoom at the rift centre. Bottom: more general view of model. Red shade is plastic (brittle) strain rate and blue is ductile strain rate. Grey shading shows accumulated plastic (brittle) strain and represents areas where faulting occurred. Sediments are colour-coded by age since the start of rifting: in rainbow colours are sediments deposited during rifting and in white to red those deposited after breakup. Blue line marks the 1021 Pa s iso-viscosity line. Thin dotted black lines are isotherms. Red dashed line shows a prediction of the location and thickness of underplated magmatic material, where the line is on top of the Moho, then the thickness of the underplated body is zero. In the model it is assumed that the magma produced in a time step is instantaneously advected to the area of highest strain rate in the Moho (ref. 146). Note that, in the model, the magma is only underplated, but in nature it will intrude into and extrude from the crust, thus the model only gives a representation of the area where magmatic products would be present and their total thickness.

43017_2022_380_MOESM5_ESM.mp4

Supplementary Movie 4. Evolution of Model 4. Top: zoom at the rift centre. Bottom: more general view of model. Red shade is plastic (brittle) strain rate and blue is ductile strain rate. Grey shading shows accumulated plastic (brittle) strain and represents areas where faulting occurred. Sediments are colour-coded by age since the start of rifting: in rainbow colours are sediments deposited during rifting and in white to red those deposited after breakup. Blue line marks the 1021 Pa s iso-viscosity line. Thin dotted black lines are isotherms. Red dashed line shows a prediction of the location and thickness of underplated magmatic material, where the line is on top of the Moho, then the thickness of the underplated body is zero. In the model it is assumed that the magma produced in a time step is instantaneously advected to the area of highest strain rate in the Moho (ref. 146). Note that, in the model, the magma is only underplated, but in nature it will intrude into and extrude from the crust, thus the model only gives a representation of the area where magmatic products would be present and their total thickness.

Glossary

Break-up

The point (in time and space) where the thinning continents physically separate from each other.

Conjugate margins

Two sides of an ocean basin that before rifting were joined.

Continent–ocean transition

(COT). The area seawards of the thinned continental crust, which does not show seismic velocity–depth nor tectonic structures typical of thinned continental or Penrose-like oceanic crust.

Footwall

The block that does not experience subsidence on one side of an active fault.

Hangingwall

The block that experiences subsidence on one side of an active fault.

High-velocity lower-crustal bodies

(HVLCs). Bodies in the seismically defined lower crust exhibiting high velocities (VP of 7.0–7.8 km s−1) in wide-angle data and interpreted as magmatic intrusions.

Large igneous provinces

(LIPs). Formed by the injection of large volumes of magmatism in very short geological periods, 1–2 Myr or less. Traditionally interpreted as formed by the impact of a new mantle plume.

Listric

A fault that has high angle in its shallowest segments (~60–30°) and has much lower angle at depth.

Magnetic anomaly lineations

Commonly interpreted to indicate seafloor spreading (oceanic crust). Formed when mafic magma cools below the Curie point (580 °C) and takes the polarity of the Earth’s field at that time.

Multichannel seismic

(MCS) data. Data that mainly records the near-normal incidence reflected waves and gives a high-resolution image of the reflectivity in the subsurface.

Necking zone

Where the crust thins from the continental platform (crustal thickness 28–25 km) towards the distal domain (crustal thickness of ~20–15 km or less). Necking zones can be spatially abrupt or occur over a large distance.

Penrose-like oceanic crust

Oceanic crust that is ~6–7 km thick, with an upper crust formed by extrusive pillow basalts and dolerite dykes, overlying a gabbroic lower crust.

Postrift

Period of time after break-up.

Post-tectonic sediment

Sediment deposited after the activity of the underlying basement faults.

Seaward-dipping reflectors

(SDRs). Formed of tilted, stacked, lava and sediment interbeds.

Sequential faulting

A system of faults that young oceanwards and cut through the hangingwall of the previous ones.

Strain weakening

A reduction in the strength of the lithosphere due to mechanical damage. Strain weakening can result from the presence of fluids at faults, mineralization, reduction in grain size and the formation of crystallographic preferred orientations.

Synrift

Period of time before break-up.

Syntectonic sediment

Sediment deposited during the activity of the underlying basement faults.

Unconformities

Boundaries between sedimentary rocks caused by a period of erosion or a pause in sediment accumulation.

Underplated

Material added to the base of the crust.

Wide-angle seismic

(WAS) data. Data that records wide-angle refracted, turning and reflected waves and yields information on the velocity-depth structure in the subsurface.

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Pérez-Gussinyé, M., Collier, J.S., Armitage, J.J. et al. Towards a process-based understanding of rifted continental margins. Nat Rev Earth Environ 4, 166–184 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00380-y

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