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  • Review Article
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Crustal magmatic controls on the formation of porphyry copper deposits

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment volume 2, pages 542–557 (2021)Cite this article

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Abstract

Porphyry deposits are large, low-grade metal ore bodies that are formed from hydrothermal fluids derived from an underlying magma reservoir. They are important as major sources of critical metals for industry and society, such as copper and gold. However, the magmatic and redox processes required to form economic-grade porphyry deposits remain poorly understood. In this Review, we discuss advances in understanding crustal magmatic conditions that favour the formation of porphyry Cu deposits at subduction zones. Chalcophile metal fertility of mantle-derived arc magmas is primarily modulated by the amount and nature of residual sulfide phases in the mantle wedge during partial melting. Crustal thickness influences the longevity of lower crustal magma reservoirs and the sulfide saturation history. For example, in thick crust, prolonged magma activity with hydrous and oxidized evolving magmas increases ore potential, whereas thin crust favours high chalcophile element fertility, owing to late sulfide saturation. A shallow depth (<7 km) of fluid exsolution might play a role in increasing Au precipitation efficiency, as immiscible sulfide melts act as a transient storage of chalcophile metals and liberate them to ore fluids. Future studies should aim to identify the predominant sulfide phases in felsic systems to determine their influence on the behaviour of chalcophile elements during magma differentiation.

Key points

  • Prolonged injection of hydrous basaltic magmas and accumulation of andesitic magmas in the mid to lower crust are prerequisites to forming large porphyry deposits because these processes are required to maintain a long-lived magmatic system and associated hydrothermal activity in the shallow crust.

  • Crustal thickness influences the duration and volume of magma activity, timing of sulfide saturation, chalcophile element fertility and emplacement depth of porphyry intrusions.

  • Thick crusts (>40 km) increase porphyry Cu ore potential by producing voluminous and hydrous magmas in long-lived (≥2–3 Ma) mid to lower crustal magma reservoirs at ∼30–70 km depth, which can result in the formation of supergiant to giant porphyry Cu deposits if a combination of other ore-forming conditions is fulfilled.

  • In thin crust (<40 km), late sulfide saturation and high chalcophile element fertility in shallow magma reservoirs (∼5–15 km depth) increase Au-rich porphyry Cu ore potential.

  • Immiscible sulfide melts can act as temporary metal storage locations when the sulfide melts and exsolved fluids interact in shallow magma reservoirs.

  • Depth of porphyry emplacement (∼1–7 km), magma alkalinity and Au fertility control Au endowments in porphyry Cu deposits

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Fig. 1: Worldwide locations of large to giant porphyry Cu deposits.
Fig. 2: Contrasting geochemistry between magmas from thick (>40 km) and thin (<40 km) arcs.
Fig. 3: Sr/Y of porphyries and Cu in fluids.
Fig. 4: Chalcophile element fertility of porphyries.
Fig. 5: Geochemical systematics and formation depth of Au-poor and Au-rich porphyry Cu deposits.
Fig. 6: Porphyry systems in thick and thin crusts.

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Acknowledgements

J.-W.P. was supported by a fund from the Korea Government Ministry of Science and ICT (NRF-2019R1A2C1009809). I.H.C. was supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Grant (DP17010340). H.H. acknowledges the support from Brain Pool Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (2019H1D3A1A01102977). M.C. acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (200020_162415, 200021_169032). The authors thank J. H. Seo for their discussion and comments on the manuscript.

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  1. School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

    Jung-Woo Park

  2. Research Institute of Oceanography, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

    Jung-Woo Park & Hongda Hao

  3. Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

    Ian H. Campbell

  4. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

    Massimo Chiaradia

  5. Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA

    Cin-Ty Lee

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J.-W.P., I.H.C. and M.C. substantially contributed to the discussion and writing of the manuscript. H.H. and C.-T.L. contributed to the discussion of the content and reviewed the manuscript before submission. H.H. and M.C. compiled the data sets and drafted the figures.

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Supplementary information

Glossary

Sulfide saturation

Silicate melt becomes saturated with a sulfide phase, normally an immiscible sulfide melt, and segregates from the silicate melt.

Hydrothermal system

A system that redistributes energy and mass by circulation of hot, water-rich fluid.

Differentiation

Processes that lead to changes in magma composition, such as fractional crystallization, crustal assimilation, recharge and mixing.

Fluid exsolution

A process through which water-rich fluid separates from silicate melt.

Metasomatized

Metamorphic processes that change the chemical composition of a rock in a pervasive manner by interaction with aqueous fluids.

Chalcophile elements

Elements that have a high affinity with sulfur and form sulfide minerals or partition strongly into immiscible sulfide melts.

Monosulfide solid solution

A high-temperature (>∼600 °C) sulfide phase that is mainly composed of Fe with minor Ni and Cu.

Fractionation

Removal and segregation of a mineral from a melt.

Oxygen fugacity (fO2)

Partial pressure of oxygen in a given environment.

Cumulates

Igneous rocks formed by accumulation of crystals from magma.

Adakite

An intermediate to felsic volcanic rock that has geochemical signatures of magma thought to be produced by partial melting of altered basalt.

Subduction erosion

Removal of upper plate materials in active continental margins.

Delamination

Detachment of lower crust and/or mantle lithosphere from the continental crust.

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Park, JW., Campbell, I.H., Chiaradia, M. et al. Crustal magmatic controls on the formation of porphyry copper deposits. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2, 542–557 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00182-8

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