Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Long-term increased grain yield and soil fertility from intercropping

Nature Sustainability volume 4, pages 943–950 (2021)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Population and income growth are increasing global food demand at a time when a third of the world’s agricultural soils are degraded and climate variability threatens the sustainability of food production. Intercropping, the practice of growing two or more spatially intermingled crops, often increases yields, but whether such yield increases, their stability and soil fertility can be sustained over time remains unclear. Using four long-term (10–16 years) experiments on soils of differing fertility, we found that grain yields in intercropped systems were on average 22% greater than in matched monocultures and had greater year-to-year stability. Moreover, relative to monocultures, yield benefits of intercropping increased through time, suggesting that intercropping may increase soil fertility via observed increases in soil organic matter, total nitrogen and macro-aggregates when comparing intercropped with monoculture soils. Our results suggest that wider adoption of intercropping could increase both crop production and its long-term sustainability.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Average grain yield and its temporal trends comparing monoculture and intercropping systems in equal-fertilization and optimal-fertilization experiments from 2003/2009 to 2018.
Fig. 2: Average temporal stability of yields for intercropping and their respective sole cropping across all crop combinations and fertilization treatments in equal-fertilization and optimal-fertilization experiments from 2003/2009 to 2018.
Fig. 3: Soil large macro-aggregates comparing monoculture and intercropping systems in equal-fertilization and optimal-fertilization experiments.
Fig. 4: Relative changes of soil chemical properties for intercropping compared with corresponding monocultures in equal-fertilization and optimal-fertilization experiments.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available in Supplementary Data 1 and from the corresponding author upon request. Source data are provided with this paper.

Code availability

The custom code generated for this study is available in the Supplementary Information and from the corresponding author upon request.

References

  1. Laurance, W. F., Sayer, J. & Cassman, K. G. Agricultural expansion and its impacts on tropical nature. Trends Ecol. Evol. 29, 107–116 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Bélanger, J. & Pilling, D. (eds) The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture (FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, 2019).

  3. Rockström, J. et al. Sustainable intensification of agriculture for human prosperity and global sustainability. Ambio 46, 4–17 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Pretty, J. et al. Global assessment of agricultural system redesign for sustainable intensification. Nat. Sustain. 1, 441–446 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Renard, D. & Tilman, D. National food production stabilized by crop diversity. Nature 571, 257–260 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Tilman, D. Benefits of intensive agricultural intercropping. Nat. Plants 6, 604–605 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Gomez, A. A. & Gomez, K. A. Multiple Cropping in the Humid Tropics of Asia (IDRC, 1983).

  8. Li, L. et al. Diversity enhances agricultural productivity via rhizosphere phosphorus facilitation on phosphorus-deficient soils. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 11192–11196 (2007).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Li, C. J. et al. Syndromes of production in intercropping impact yield gains. Nat. Plants 6, 653–660 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Xu, Z. et al. Intercropping maize and soybean increases efficiency of land and fertilizer nitrogen use; a meta-analysis. Field Crops Res. 246, 107661 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Zhu, Y. Y. et al. Genetic diversity and disease control in rice. Nature 406, 718–722 (2000).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Li, W. X. et al. Effects of intercropping and nitrogen application on nitrate present in the profile of an Orthic Anthrosol in Northwest China. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 105, 483–491 (2005).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Manevski, K., Borgesen, C. D., Andersen, M. N. & Kristensen, I. S. Reduced nitrogen leaching by intercropping maize with red fescue on sandy soils in North Europe: a combined field and modeling study. Plant Soil 388, 67–85 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Tilman, D., Reich, P. B. & Knops, J. M. H. Biodiversity and ecosystem stability in a decade-long grassland experiment. Nature 441, 629–632 (2006).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Roscher, C. et al. Identifying population- and community-level mechanisms of diversity–stability relationships in experimental grasslands. J. Ecol. 99, 1460–1469 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Zhou, B. R. et al. Plant functional groups asynchrony keep the community biomass stability along with the climate change—a 20-year experimental observation of alpine meadow in eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 282, 49–57 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Schnabel, F. et al. Drivers of productivity and its temporal stability in a tropical tree diversity experiment. Glob. Change Biol. 25, 4257–4272 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Pohl, M., Alig, D., Körner, C. & Rixen, C. Higher plant diversity enhances soil stability in disturbed alpine ecosystems. Plant Soil 324, 91–102 (2009).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Pérès, G. et al. Mechanisms linking plant community properties to soil aggregate stability in an experimental grassland plant diversity gradient. Plant Soil 373, 285–299 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Gould, I. J., Quinton, J. N., Weigelt, A., De Deyn, G. B. & Bardgett, R. D. Plant diversity and root traits benefit physical properties key to soil function in grasslands. Ecol. Lett. 19, 1140–1149 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Lange, M. et al. Plant diversity increases soil microbial activity and soil carbon storage. Nat. Commun. 6, 6707 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Dybzinski, R., Fargione, J. E., Zak, D. R., Fornara, D. & Tilman, D. Soil fertility increases with plant species diversity in a long-term biodiversity experiment. Oecologia 158, 85–93 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Tisdall, J. M. & Oades, J. M. Organic matter and water-stable aggregates in soils. J. Soil Sci. 33, 141–163 (1982).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Amézketa, E. Soil aggregate stability: a review. J. Sustain. Agric. 14, 83–151 (1999).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Six, J., Bossuyt, H., Degryze, S. & Denef, K. A history of research on the link between (micro)aggregates, soil biota, and soil organic matter dynamics. Soil Tillage Res. 79, 7–31 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Tiemann, L. K., Grandy, A. S., Atkinson, E. E., Marin-Spiotta, E. & McDaniel, M. D. Crop rotational diversity enhances belowground communities and functions in an agroecosystem. Ecol. Lett. 18, 761–771 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Christensen, B. T. & Johnston, A. E. in Developments in Soil Science (eds Gregorich, E. G. & Carter, M. R.) 399–430 (Elsevier, 1997).

  28. Fornara, D. A. & Tilman, D. Soil carbon sequestration in prairie grasslands increased by chronic nitrogen addition. Ecology 93, 2030–2036 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Cong, W. F. et al. Plant species richness promotes soil carbon and nitrogen stocks in grasslands without legumes. J. Ecol. 102, 1163–1170 (2014).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Zhang, W. F. et al. Closing yield gaps in China by empowering smallholder farmers. Nature 537, 671–674 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Wan, N. F. et al. Global synthesis of effects of plant species diversity on trophic groups and interactions. Nat. Plants 6, 503–510 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Isbell, F. et al. Benefits of increasing plant diversity in sustainable agroecosystems. J. Ecol. 105, 871–879 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Status of the World’s Soil Resources Main Report (FAO and ITPS, 2015).

  34. Jensen, E. S. & Williamson, S. in Replacing Chemicals with Biology: Phasing Out Highly Hazardous Pesticides with Agroecology (eds Watts, M. & Williamson, S.) 162–167 (Pestice Action Network International, 2015).

  35. Bender, S. F., Wagg, C. & van der Heijden, M. G. A. An underground revolution: biodiversity and soil ecological engineering for agricultural sustainability. Trends Ecol. Evol. 31, 440–452 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Zhang, R. Z. et al. Response of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi diversity and community in maize and soybean rhizosphere soil and roots to intercropping systems with different nitrogen application rates. Sci. Total Environ. 740, 139810 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Bao, S. D. Analysis on Soil and Agricultural Chemistry (China Agricultural Press, 2005).

  38. Kemper, W. D. & Rosenau, R. C. Aggregate Stability and Size Distribution: Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1 Physical and Mineralogical Methods (American Society of Agronomy, 1986).

  39. Willey, R. W. Evaluation and presentation of intercropping advantages. Exp. Agric. 21, 119–133 (1985).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. van Ruijven, J. & Berendse, F. Contrasting effects of diversity on the temporal stability of plant populations. Oikos 116, 1323–1330 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. The Price Division, National Development and Reform Commission of China The National Agricultural Products Cost–Benefit Compilation of Information (China Statistics Press, 2010–2019).

  42. R Core Team R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing v.3.6.2 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2019).

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank all members involved in the maintenance of the long-term field experiments. We also thank H. Xu (Hebei Agricultural University) for advice on yield detrending method and X. Li (CSIRO Agriculture and Food) for assistance on data analysis and visualization. This work was supported financially by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31430014), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFD0300202) and the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) (2011CB100405). R.M.C. thanks the National Science Foundation EPSCoR Cooperative Agreement OIA-1757351 for partial support.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Xiao-Fei Li

    Present address: State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Institute of Cotton Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Anyang, China

  2. Hai-Yong Xia

    Present address: Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China

  3. Pei-Pei Mei

    Present address: College of Life Sciences and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, China

  4. These authors contributed equally: Xiao-Fei Li, Zhi-Gang Wang.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Key Laboratory of Plant and Soil Interactions, Ministry of Education, Beijing Key Laboratory of Biodiversity and Organic Farming, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China

    Xiao-Fei Li, Zhi-Gang Wang, Jin-Pu Wu, Xin-Ru Liu, Xiu-Li Tian, Yu Wang, Jian-Peng Li, Yan Wang, Hai-Yong Xia, Pei-Pei Mei, Xiao-Feng Wang, Rui-Peng Yu, Wei-Ping Zhang & Long Li

  2. Institute of Soils, Fertilizers and Water-Saving Agriculture, Gansu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China

    Xing-Guo Bao, Jian-Hao Sun, Si-Cun Yang, Cheng-Bao Wang, Jian-Hua Zhao & Zong-Xian Che

  3. Institute of Crop Sciences, Ningxia Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Yinchuan, China

    Ping Wang & Lin-Guo Gui

  4. Division of Biological Sciences and Institute on Ecosystems, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA

    Ragan M. Callaway

  5. Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, USA

    David Tilman

  6. Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA

    David Tilman

Authors
  1. Xiao-Fei Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Zhi-Gang Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Xing-Guo Bao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jian-Hao Sun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Si-Cun Yang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ping Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Cheng-Bao Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Jin-Pu Wu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Xin-Ru Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Xiu-Li Tian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Yu Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Jian-Peng Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Yan Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  14. Hai-Yong Xia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  15. Pei-Pei Mei
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  16. Xiao-Feng Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  17. Jian-Hua Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  18. Rui-Peng Yu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  19. Wei-Ping Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  20. Zong-Xian Che
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  21. Lin-Guo Gui
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  22. Ragan M. Callaway
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  23. David Tilman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  24. Long Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

L.L., X.-F.L., Z.-G.W., J.-H.S., X.-G.B. and S.-C.Y. designed the research; X.-F.L., Z.-G.W., X.-G.B., J.-H.S., S.-C.Y., P.W, C.-B.W., J.-P.W., X.-R.L., X.-L.T, Yu Wang, J.-P.L., Yan Wang, H.-Y.X., P.-P.M., X.-F.W., J.-H.Z., R.-P.Y., W.-P.Z., Z.-X.C., L.-G.G. and L.L. performed research; X.-F.L., Z.-G.W., R.-P.Y. and L.L. analysed the data; and X.-F.L., Z.-G.W., R.M.C., D.T. and L.L. wrote the paper.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Long Li.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Peer review information Nature Sustainability thanks Wen-Feng Cong, Matthew Ryan and Christian Schöb for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Figs. 1–3 and Tables 1–4.

Reporting Summary

Supplementary Data 1

Statistical source data for Supplementary Figs. 2 and 3.

Source data

Source Data Fig. 1

Statistical source data for Fig. 1.

Source Data Fig. 2

Statistical source data for Fig. 2.

Source Data Fig. 3

Statistical source data for Fig. 3.

Source Data Fig. 4

Statistical source data for Fig. 4.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Li, XF., Wang, ZG., Bao, XG. et al. Long-term increased grain yield and soil fertility from intercropping. Nat Sustain 4, 943–950 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00767-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00767-7

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing