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Frankincense in peril

Nature Sustainability volume 2, pages 602–610 (2019)Cite this article

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Abstract

The harvest of plant parts and exudates from wild populations contributes to the income, food security and livelihoods of many millions of people worldwide. Frankincense, an aromatic resin sourced from natural populations of Boswellia trees and shrubs, has been cherished by world societies for centuries. Boswellia populations are threatened by over-exploitation and ecosystem degradation, jeopardizing future resin production. Here, we reveal evidence of population collapse of B. papyrifera—now the main source of frankincense—throughout its geographic range. Using inventories of 23 populations consisting of 21,786 trees, growth-ring data from 202 trees and demographic models on the basis of 7,246 trees, we find that over 75% of studied populations lack small trees, natural regeneration has been absent for decades, and projected frankincense production will be halved in 20 yr. These changes are caused by increased human population pressure on Boswellia woodlands through cattle grazing, frequent burns and reckless tapping. A literature review showed that other Boswellia species experience similar threats. Populations can be restored by establishing cattle exclosures and fire-breaks, and by planting trees and tapping trees more carefully. Concerted conservation and restoration efforts are urgently needed to secure the long-term availability of this iconic product.

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Fig. 1: Distribution of major frankincense-producing species and main threats to existing populations.
Fig. 2: Distribution and size structures of Boswellia papyrifera populations.
Fig. 3: Regeneration failure in Boswellia populations obtained from tree-ring analysis.
Fig. 4: Projected development of Boswellia populations and frankincense yield at 23 sites.

Data availability

The data reported in this paper are tabulated in the Supplementary Data and can be accessed in the Github repository (https://github.com/groenendijk/Frankincense-demography).

Code availability

The R script used for the IPM analysis can be accessed in the Github repository (https://github.com/groenendijk/Frankincense-demography).

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Acknowledgements

This work is part of the FRAME integrated programme (‘Frankincense, myrrh and arabic gum: sustainable use of dry woodland resources in Ethiopia’). A large part of this programme was financially supported by Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research-Science for Global Development (NWO-WOTRO, grant no. W01.65.220.00). Additional support was received from: a SIDA grant to M.Tol., BES grants 2732/3420 to M.Tol. and 1415/1782 to E.B., Wageningen University Sandwich grants to E.B., M.Tol. and W.O., IFS grant C/4775-1 to M.Tol., NUFFIC grant CF6676/2010 to E.B. and Marie Curie Actions Programme grant PITN-2013-GA607545 to P.G. P.G. was also supported by FAPESP grant 18/01847-0.

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Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Frank J. Sterck, Pieter A. Zuidema.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands

    Frans Bongers, Peter Groenendijk, Mathieu Decuyper, Ute Sass-Klaassen, Frank J. Sterck & Pieter A. Zuidema

  2. Departamento de Botánica, Escola Politécnica Superior, Campus de Lugo, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain

    Peter Groenendijk

  3. Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

    Peter Groenendijk

  4. Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

    Tesfaye Bekele, Abeje Eshete, Alemu Gezahgne, Wubalem Tadesse & Mindaye Teshome

  5. Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental protection, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia

    Emiru Birhane, Abebe Damtew & Atkilt Girma

  6. Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway

    Emiru Birhane

  7. Geo-Information and Remote Sensing Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands

    Mathieu Decuyper

  8. ITC faculty, University of Twente, Enschede, the Netherlands

    Atkilt Girma

  9. Department of Forestry and Range Sciences, University of Al Fashir, Al Fashir, Sudan

    Mohamed A. Khamis

  10. Farm Africa, Regional office, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

    Mulugeta Lemenih

  11. Forest Sector Development Program, UNDP/MEFCC, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

    Tefera Mengistu

  12. University of Asmara, Asmara, Eritrea

    Woldeselassie Ogbazghi

  13. Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Hawassa University, Shashemene, Ethiopia

    Motuma Tolera

Authors
  1. Frans Bongers
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Contributions

F.B., F.J.S., P.A.Z. and P.G. conceived the study. F.B. and P.G. compiled the data. P.G. and P.A.Z. performed the demographic modelling. M.D. evaluated forest change. F.B., P.A.Z., F.J.S. and P.G. wrote the paper. All authors contributed data and commented on the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Frans Bongers.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Supplementary Information

Supplementary Figs. 1–8, Supplementary Tables 1–5, Supplementary method 1, Supplementary Note 1, Supplementary References 1–12

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Bongers, F., Groenendijk, P., Bekele, T. et al. Frankincense in peril. Nat Sustain 2, 602–610 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0322-2

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