Mobile-based mindfulness meditation intervention’s impact on mental health among young male judo athletes in South Korea: a quasi-experimental study

Young athletes commonly encounter various mental health challenges due to the distinct pressures inherent in sports environments. This study investigates the effectiveness of mobile-delivered mindfulness meditation interventions in alleviating mental health indicators of depression, perceived stress, and anxiety, and enhancing self-esteem and resilience among young male judo athletes in South Korea. Pre- and post-test questionnaires were completed by 53 judo athletes. Participants were then allocated to the intervention group (N = 27; Mage = 13.77 [SD = 1.11]), which used a mobile meditation software program, or the control group (N = 27; Mage = 13.56 [SD = 1.05]). Data analysis compared intervention and control group scores using multiple statistical methods, including independent sample t-tests, paired sample t-tests, and 2 (time) × 2 (group) repeated measures analysis of variance. Following the intervention, the mindfulness group exhibited significant enhancements in the mental health indicators of depression (GMD = 2.74 [95% CI 0.90–4.56], Cohen’s D = 0.84), perceived stress (GMD = 0.35 [95% CI 0.002–0.70], Cohen’s D = 0.56), and anxiety (GMD = 0.2 [95% CI 0.001–0.40, Cohen’s D = 0.56]. Self-esteem also had a significant increase (GMD = 0.55 [95% CI − 0.22 to − 0.88], Cohen’s D = 0.95). The findings of this study underscore the potential benefits of mobile-delivered mindfulness meditation interventions in addressing mental health challenges among young male judo athletes. The significant enhancements observed in scores on measures of depression, perceived stress, anxiety, and self-esteem among participants in the mindfulness group highlight the effectiveness of such interventions in promoting mental health in sports settings.

Mobile-based mindfulness meditation programs offer a flexible strategy for enhancing mental health.They successfully remove obstacles that could discourage individuals from adopting mindfulness meditation by offering easily available and handy tools for practicing it through smartphones and tablets 43 .In comparison to face-to-face programs that may be perceived as daunting, mobile applications present a reduced threshold for participation, enabling users to commence their mindfulness journey at a self-determined pace 44,45 .Thus, these applications ensure reliable access to mindfulness meditation, regardless of the availability of classes or athletes' often grueling travel schedules.Moreover, with the integration of configurable elements, mobile applications can offer a wide range of programs that cater to individual interests or mental health requirements, hence potentially enhancing the efficacy of therapies 46 .In addition, these platforms incorporate interactive elements, progress monitoring, and reminders, which enhance motivation and compliance 47 .Finally, it is worth noting that these services demonstrate cost-effectiveness, often providing low or no-cost alternatives, thus significantly enhancing accessibility 48 .Certain mobile applications also promote community engagement by incorporating such elements as discussion forums and professional coaching, thereby facilitating support and motivation for users in their pursuit of mindfulness.Although mobile-based mindfulness meditation programs have considerable advantages in addressing overall well-being, there is little research exploring their impact within the sport context.Thus, in the study we report herein, we sought to examine the potential impacts of mobile-based mindfulness meditation programs, which offer numerous advantages, on the outcomes of young athletes.
Within the demanding realm of high-performance sports culture, where young athletes are held to standards emphasizing commitment and physical prowess, the necessity of mindfulness meditation interventions to address mental health issues among young athletes becomes increasingly apparent.These athletes, while striving for excellence, often encounter a multitude of stress-inducing factors such as excessive training, high performance expectations, and fear of failure.As evidenced by substantial rates of depression among young athletes, it's clear that mental health concerns are prevalent within this demographic, underscoring the urgency for intervention.Moreover, the intersection of physical, emotional, and academic pressures can detrimentally impact crucial psychosocial resources such as self-esteem and resilience, vital for overall well-being and performance.Yet, despite the evident need for support, young athletes encounter significant barriers to accessing mental health treatment, perpetuated by stigma, misconceptions, and a lack of awareness within sports environments.Given these challenges, it is imperative to integrate mindfulness meditation interventions tailored to the unique needs of young athletes, not only to alleviate immediate concerns but also to foster a culture of holistic well-being essential for their comprehensive development and success.
The overall objective of this study is to examine the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation interventions, administered via mobile platforms, in alleviating mental health indicators of depression, perceived stress, and anxiety and the psychological well-being of self-esteem and resilience among young athletes.We hypothesized that the participants in the mindfulness group would exhibit significant reductions in indicators of mental health problems and significant improvements in psychological well-being indicators after the intervention compared to the control group.Through an in-depth exploration of the benefits of mindfulness applications for athletes, we aim to shed light on the untapped potential of these programs for enhancing the well-being of young athletes.

Participants
Figure 1 displays the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) diagram, which graphically illustrates the movement of participants during the study.Among the original 53 participants, 26 individuals (49.05%) were assigned to the treatment group, whereas 27 individuals (50.95%) were allocated to the control group.Significantly, all 26 participants in the mindfulness group and 26 out of 27 participants (96.29%) in the control group successfully completed the post-evaluation.Hence, a total of 52 participants were included in the final data analysis.Comprehensive demographic information is presented in Table 1.

Results from the baseline-and post-test between the two groups
The baseline characteristics of the individuals in the mindfulness group (n = 27) and control group (n = 27) are presented in Table 2.The findings indicated that the mindfulness group displayed elevated levels of depression (M = 5.50, SD = 3.89), anxiety (M = 0.43, SD = 0.45), perceived stress (M = 1.95,SD = 0.74), negative affectivity (M = 1.51,SD = 1.35) in comparison to control group (M = 4.22, SD = 3.74 for depression; M = 0.28, SD = 0.33 for anxiety; M = 1.61,SD = 0.54 for perceived stress; M = 1.36,SD = 0.57 for negative affectivity).In the context of psychological well-being, the mindfulness group had lower levels of self-esteem (M = 3.44, SD = 0.64) and resilience (M = 2.94, SD = 0.82) compared to the control group (M = 3.81, SD = 0.72 for self-esteem; M = 3.45, SD = 1.73 for resilience).Crucially, there were no statistically significant disparities among the two groups in terms of any of the factors at the beginning of the study.
Next, paired sample t-tests were undertaken to determine if there were significant differences in the levels of depression, anxiety, perceived stress, self-esteem, and resilience depending on the utilization of a mobile-based mindfulness meditation program across time (Table 3).The findings for depression indicated a reduction in Vol:.( 1234567890

Discussion
This study investigated the effectiveness of mobile-based mindfulness meditation programs for improving mental health indicators (such as depression, perceived stress, and anxiety) and psychological well-being indicators (such as self-esteem and resilience) among male judo athletes in South Korea.Following the eight-week intervention, the mindfulness group showed a significant improvement in depression and self-esteem when compared to the control group.We also found that there were interaction effects between group and time for the variables of depression, perceived stress, and self-esteem.Our results demonstrate the utility of including mobile-based mindfulness meditation programs for young athletes in a competitive sporting context.The notable decrease in depression and perceived stress among young athletes after the mobile-based mindfulness meditation intervention corresponds with abundant data from children 65,66 and young athletes [36][37][38]41 . Minfulness practices may equip young athletes with depression management and stress management techniques by emphasizing present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance.Additionally, by learning to focus on the task at hand and accept their thoughts and emotions without judgment 67 , athletes may experience reduced levels of cortisol, a stress hormone, thereby mitigating the physiological impact of stress.This reduction in physiological stress responses can contribute to decreased feelings of anxiety among young athletes.
A common problem for athletes, especially in competitive sports, is rumination over past mistakes or excessive worry about future performances 29 .Mindfulness interventions promote present-focused attention, reducing the tendency to dwell on negative thoughts or overthink 34 .This shift from ruminative thinking to presentmoment awareness can alleviate symptoms of depression and stress by breaking the cycle of negative thought patterns.Theoretically, the findings of this study underscore the potential of mobile-based mindfulness meditation programs as a viable intervention strategy for addressing mental health concerns among young athletes.The reluctance of young athletes to seek help due to fear of being perceived as weak or the fear of negative repercussions for their athletic careers necessitates the development of innovative, accessible, and stigma-free interventions 13 .Hence, the present study provides valuable insights into the potential efficacy of mobile-based  The improvements in self-esteem within the mindfulness group emphasize the holistic nature of the intervention.Elevated self-esteem is pivotal in fostering coping mechanisms among young athletes facing mental health challenges, potentially acting as a protective factor against future issues.For young athletes, whose identities are often intertwined with their athletic performance 13 , self-esteem can be heavily influenced by both their achievements and the pressures associated with high-performance sports culture.Mindfulness activities foster heightened self-awareness, enabling individuals to impartially observe their thoughts, feelings, and sensations 67 .By developing a heightened sense of self-awareness, young athletes may be able to identify and confront negative self-perceptions or self-criticisms that may impact their self-esteem, instead of fixating on previous mistakes and future anxieties.Furthermore, by increasing their awareness of their internal experiences and decreasing the inclination to dwell on previous errors 68 , individuals can cultivate a more empathetic and tolerant mindset towards themselves, which in turn promotes the development of a positive self-perception and enhanced selfworth.Additionally, on a physiological level, previous studies indicate that engaging in mindfulness techniques might cause alterations in the brain's structure, specifically in regions linked to self-awareness and the management of emotions, such as the prefrontal cortex and the insula 69,70 .These brain modifications might influence the way individuals perceive themselves and promote a more favorable self-image, ultimately leading to enhanced self-esteem.Finally, mindfulness promotes the practice of constructive self-dialogue and the cultivation of a mentality focused on personal progress 71 .Young athletes who participate in competitive sports may develop a more stable and positive self-concept, leading to higher self-esteem, by embracing a mindset that prioritizes effort, growth, and resilience rather than focusing solely on outcomes.
Despite our finding of improvements in other psychological areas, such as self-esteem, there was not a significant changes in negative affectivity and resilience among young athletes after the intervention.This is contrary to what we initially expected.This discovery prompts thought-provoking questions about the subtle impacts of mindfulness meditation programs on particular facets of psychological well-being.Resilience, defined as the capacity of an individual to adjust and recover from difficult situations 22 , continues to be a crucial element in successfully overcoming the obstacles encountered by young athletes.Although mindfulness practices often focus on developing resilience by improving coping strategies and emotional regulation, the absence of significant enhancement in resilience among our study participants necessitates more investigation.Recognizing unforeseen discoveries in research is crucial.In this instance, the lack of notable enhancement in resilience, despite other favorable psychological transformations, suggests that further research will be needed to achieve deeper

Managerial implications
The findings of this study have several practical implications.First, the demonstrated reduction in symptoms of depression, anxiety, and perceived stress among the mindfulness group underscores the potential of integrating mobile mindfulness meditation interventions into the support systems for young athletes.This suggests that incorporating accessible and flexible mindfulness meditation programs into the daily routines of young athletes can serve as a proactive measure to address mental health challenges commonly experienced in competitive sports environments 65 .Therefore, coaches and athletic departments can consider implementing tailored mobile mindfulness applications or integrating existing platforms into the training and support frameworks for young athletes, thereby promoting holistic well-being and mental resilience.Second, our results demonstrate the accessibility and adaptability of mobile mindfulness applications, providing actionable insights for real-world implementation.The reduced participation threshold and individuals' ability to commence their mindfulness journey at a self-determined pace through mobile applications align with the need for flexible and personalized mental health support in competitive sports settings.Therefore, athletic departments and coaches can consider incorporating configurable elements and progress monitoring features in mobile mindfulness applications tailored for young athletes 66 .For example, it may incorporate interactive elements, reminders, and community engagement features, enhancing motivation, compliance, and support networks and ultimately fostering a culture of mental well-being and resilience within athletic communities.
Finally, the findings of this study suggest the importance of developing educational and training initiatives aimed at raising awareness about the benefits of mindfulness and promoting its adoption among young athletes.Coaches, trainers, and sports educators can leverage the findings of this study to incorporate mindfulness training into overall athletic development programs, fostering a culture of mental resilience and well-being within sports communities 67 .Doing so can help young athletes manage their mental health, build their emotional resilience, and enhance their overall performance both on and off the field.

Limitations and future research directions
Although this study shows encouraging results, it is important to take into account certain limitations.First, utilizing self-report tools to evaluate psychological variables may create subjective biases.Although these tools are frequently used, depending solely on self-reported data may not comprehensively reflect the intricacies of mental health.By including multi-method assessments or clinician-rated evaluations, a more thorough understanding of the intervention's impact can be achieved.
A primary limitation of this study is the use of a quasi-experimental design, wherein the intervention group and control group were not randomly assigned.Instead, one school volunteered to implement meditation practices, while the other school served as the control group.The lack of randomization in group assignment may result in differences between the intervention and control groups beyond the intended intervention, such as variations in student demographics, school culture, or external factors.These confounding variables could impact the observed outcomes and limit the generalizability of the findings.Future research involving randomized control trials so as to enhance internal validity and establish causal relationships between the mindfulness meditation intervention and outcomes is needed.
Another significant limitation of this research is the omission of performance metrics in assessing the impact of mindfulness meditation interventions on young athletes.While our study focused on evaluating the effects of mindfulness meditation on mental health outcomes, the absence of performance measures limits the comprehensiveness of our findings.In future research endeavors, it is imperative to address this limitation by incorporating comprehensive performance metrics alongside assessments of mental health outcomes.This would allow for a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between mindfulness meditation interventions, mental well-being, and athletic performance among young athletes.On a different note, future studies could integrate prosocial measures of compassion, empathy, and tolerance into the assessment protocol.By examining the impact of mindfulness meditation interventions on these additional variables, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the intervention's effects on promoting prosocial attitudes and behaviors among young athletes.
Furthermore, the study specifically focused on young athletes who were actively participating in judo sports.Examining the possible effects of mobile mindfulness meditation programs in various sports, age groups, and levels of competition could be useful for developing customized therapies for specific subgroups of young athletes.An investigation of the correlation between these elements and the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation programs could provide a more detailed understanding of how the intervention affects different demographic and athletic groups.Therefore, future studies should be designed to include a wider range of participants from various sports and diverse demographic backgrounds.
Finally, to allocate participants into the experimental and control groups, this study employed a convenience sampling method, where participants were categorized into groups based on their availability and consent to participate.While convenience sampling allowed for the recruitment of participants from the targeted population, it is important to note that this method may not ensure randomization and could potentially introduce selection biases.Future research endeavors should consider alternative methods of participant allocation, such as randomization, to enhance the rigor and validity of our study design.

Conclusion
Previous research indicates a significant requirement for customized therapies due to the high occurrence of mental health difficulties among young athletes.The distinctive challenges experienced by this group, such as the demands of a competitive sports culture, academic expectations, and the pervasive negative perception of mental health in sports settings, add to the challenges of addressing their psychological welfare.Curiously, the general public is recommended to participate in physical activity as a treatment for mental health issues.However, competitive athletes partake in intense physical activity, which renders the intervention less suitable.In light of this paradoxical circumstance, we implemented the mindfulness meditation program as a means of addressing the mental challenges faced by young athletes.Notably, the significant reductions in depression, perceived stress, and anxiety, along with the significant enhancement in self-esteem within the mindfulness group after the intervention highlight the potential of mobile-based mindfulness meditation training in effectively addressing mental health concerns among young athletes.By reducing the obstacles to seeking assistance and providing a versatile and easily available method of intervention, these programs have considerable promise for fostering the overall well-being of this susceptible group. Vol

Perceived stress
We measured stress using the Korean Brief Encounter Psychosocial Instrument (BEPSI-K).The dynamic interaction model of stress and health impacts underpins this instrument 53 .Research has established that the BEPSI-K, the Korean version of the BEPSI, is reliable and valid 54 .This five-part questionnaire examines stress related to discouragement, unmet basic needs, and uncertainty about the future.The response rating scale spans from 1 (not at all) to 5 (always).Higher BEPSI-K values indicate more stress, whereas lower numbers indicate less stress.In this investigation, our sample's Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.78, which is highly similar to the validation study's 0.95 54 .

Anxiety
The 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale assessed GAD symptoms.Its simplicity and limited number of elements make this device suited for primary care 55 .The scale lists anxiety symptoms including restlessness, impaired stress management, increased worry, and hypervigilance.Participants are asked to rate their frequency of experiencing each issue from 0 (not at all) to 3 (near every day).High GAD-7 scores indicate frequent occurrence and high intensity of generalized anxiety disorder symptoms, while low scores indicate lower levels of symptoms.Our sample's Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.79.This matches the validation study's 0.92 Cronbach's alpha 56 .

Negative affectivity
We employed the abbreviated versions of Negative Affectivity Scale of Positive Affectivity and Negative Affectivity Scale (PANAS) as developed by Watson et al. 57 .to assess the negative affectivity of the young athletes.The 5-point scale spanned from 1 (indicating very slightly or not at all) to 5 (indicating extremely).The items encompassed terms that represented various forms of negative affectivity such as fear and distress.The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for our sample was 0.83 and 0.93 in the previous study 58 .

Self-esteem
To measure the participants' levels of self-esteem, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) 59 was used.It consists of a total of 10 items, with 5 positive and 5 negative statements.The negative items were reverse-scored, so higher total scores indicate higher levels of self-esteem.The items include statements such as "I think I have a lot of good qualities" and "I believe I can do things as well as most people." Responses were on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (4).Higher total scores indicate a higher level of self-esteem.The reliability coefficient (Cronbach's α) is 0.78 in previous studies 60 , and it was 0.85 in this study.

Resilience
The 10-item version of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 61 (CD-RISC 10) was utilized in the present study.
While the original CD-RISC 22 has shown inconsistency in its factor structure across various studies, as noted by Lee et al. 62 , the CD-RISC 10 has consistently exhibited a stable and unidimensional factor structure in multiple studies 63,64 .Participants provided their responses to the 10 items by utilizing a five-point Likert-type scale spanning from 1 (indicating "strongly disagree") to 5 (indicating "strongly agree").Illustrative examples include statements such as "I possess the capacity to adjust in response to changes" and "experiencing and managing stress can enhance my resilience."In the current investigation, the internal consistency reliability was found to be good, with a Cronbach's α of 0.73 and it was 0.84 in the previous literature 62 .

Procedure
The paper-pencil survey was conducted twice, during Week 0 and Week 8.One of the researchers visited each school and administered the questionnaires in person.In order to facilitate a seamless survey procedure, the researcher gave instructions to the participants and the coaches prior to conducting the survey.Following their training sessions, participants engaged in mindfulness sessions under the guidance of a trained coach who could provide support and guidance as needed.These sessions used the mindfulness meditation programs offered by the commercial mindfulness mobile application.They participated in sessions lasting roughly 15 minutes, three times a week for 8 weeks, following a predetermined timetable.Consequently, participants completed a total of 24 mindfulness sessions.The researchers monitored participants' mindfulness participation by utilizing the commercial mobile app.Specifically, using the mobile mindfulness app, researchers were able to monitor the participants' advancement in their meditation sessions.In addition, the coach took and submitted photographs of participants' mindfulness sessions to enhance the monitoring process via the app.The researcher documented the mindfulness logs obtained from the application and the session photographs in a collaborative document.While the experimental group received the mindfulness meditation interventions, the control group remained active through participation in their regular judo exercise routines, without engaging in the meditation program.
In considering the possible adverse effects of the meditation program, several measures were implemented to prioritize participant safety and well-being.First, participants were provided with detailed information about the nature of the intervention and given the opportunity to ask questions or express concerns before consenting to participate.Throughout the intervention period, close monitoring of participants' well-being and responses to the mindfulness sessions was conducted by the coach of the mindfulness group.Any signs of discomfort or adverse reactions were documented and addressed promptly by the researchers, with participants having the option to withdraw from the study or discontinue participation at any time.Adherence to ethical guidelines ensured that principles of beneficence and non-maleficence were upheld, with any adverse effects observed being addressed in accordance with ethical standards.

Mobile mindfulness meditation intervention
We used the Calm app for research purposes to implement a mobile mindfulness meditation program for participants.The application offers a variety of mindfulness meditation programs that allow users to choose topics that correspond with their goals and participate in customized mindfulness sessions.In this app, users can access personalized programs from among a large collection of guided mindfulness programs, specifically designed to target stress management, self-confidence augmentation, concentration enhancement, and depression relief.Thus, the research team developed a specialized curriculum specifically designed for young athletes who normally do not practice meditation.The curriculum commenced with comprehensive instruction in mindfulness exercises, aimed at familiarizing participants with foundational mindfulness techniques.These exercises included mindfulness of breath, body scan meditation, and mindful movement practices such as walking meditation.
Participants were guided through these exercises to cultivate present-moment awareness, attentional focus, and non-judgmental acceptance of their thoughts, emotions, and bodily sensations.
As participants progressed through the intervention, the curriculum advanced to incorporate material centered around stress management, anxiety reduction, and the enhancement of self-esteem.Stress management techniques introduced included mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) exercises, such as body-awareness techniques and progressive muscle relaxation, aimed at reducing physiological arousal and promoting relaxation responses in the face of stressors.Additionally, cognitive restructuring exercises were integrated to help participants identify and challenge maladaptive thought patterns contributing to stress and anxiety.Additionally, anxiety reduction strategies included mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral techniques, such as mindfulness of thoughts and emotions, designed to increase awareness and acceptance of anxious thoughts and feelings without becoming entangled in them.Participants were taught skills to observe and detach from anxious thoughts, allowing for greater emotional regulation and decreased reactivity to anxiety-provoking situations.Finally, to address self-esteem improvement, the intervention incorporated mindfulness-based self-compassion practices aimed at fostering kindness, acceptance, and understanding toward oneself.Participants engaged in loving-kindness meditation exercises, cultivating feelings of warmth and compassion toward themselves and others.Additionally, cognitive techniques were employed to challenge self-critical thoughts and promote a more compassionate and balanced self-view.
Overall, the intervention provided a structured and progressive framework for developing mindfulness skills and applying them to manage stress, reduce anxiety, and enhance self-esteem among young athletes.By integrating mindfulness practices with evidence-based strategies from cognitive behavioral therapy, the curriculum aimed to empower participants with practical tools for promoting psychological well-being and resilience in the context of their athletic pursuits.

Data analysis
Initially, frequency and descriptive analysis was employed to compute the frequencies and percentages of categorical variables, as well as the means and standard deviations (SDs) of continuous variables.Subsequently, a series of analyses was conducted to analyze the discrepancies between the baseline and post evaluations across different groups.First, the methodology employed an independent sample t-test to examine the differences in the proposed variables between the two groups at both baseline and post evaluation.Second, paired sample t-tests were conducted within each group to independently compare measurements taken at the beginning and after the evaluation.Subsequently, a 2 (group) × 2 (time) repeated measures analysis of variance (RMANOVA), where baseline and post-evaluation data were considered as dependent factors and the group was treated as the independent variable, was conducted.

Table 2 .
Mean differences between mindfulness group and control group at baseline-and post evaluation.

Table 3 .
Mean differences between baseline-and post evaluation for both groups.*p < 0.05.
understanding of how mindfulness meditation interventions specifically influence various aspects of mental well-being.Future research that investigates the intricacies of enhancing resilience in mindfulness meditation programs, potentially examining factors such as the length, substance, or methods of delivering interventions that may more effectively promote resilience among young athletes, is needed.