Nanoengineered chitosan functionalized titanium dioxide biohybrids for bacterial infections and cancer therapy

Nanoengineered chitosan functionalized titanium dioxide biohybrids (CTiO2@NPs) were prepared with Amomum subulatum Roxb extract via one-pot green method and assessed by UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, SEM and EDAX analyses. As revealed by XRD pattern, the nanohybrids exhibits a rutile TiO2 crystallites around 45 nm in size. The emergence of the Ti–O–Ti bond is identified by observing a peak between 400 and 800 cm−1. A wide bandgap (4.8 eV) has been observed in CTiO2@NPs, due to the quantum confinement effects and the oxygen vacancies reveal the intriguing potential of developed nanohybrids for various applications. Surface flaws were identified by observing an emission band at 382, 437, 482, 517, and 556 nm. They also exhibit better antibacterial performances using well diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus substilis, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Escherichia coli. CTiO2@NPs were discovered to have free radical scavenging activity on DPPH analysis and exhibit IC50 value as 95.80 μg/mL and standard (Vitamin C) IC50 is 87.62 μg/mL. CTiO2@NPs exhibited better anticancer properties against the osteosarcoma (MG-63) cell line. All these findings suggest that there is a forum for further useful therapeutic applications. Therefore, we claim that nano-engineered carbohydrated TiO2 phytohybrid is a promising solution for bacterial infections and bone cancer.

of the oxidation carriers and are used to penetrate quickly into cells for influence on the subcellular organelles like nuclei or mitochondria etc. resulting in cancer cell death through disruption of cellular homeostasis.They also induce enhanced cell sensitization for a reduction in cell proliferation rate, organic specific carcinogenesis as well as mortality 41 .
The nanoformulation of titanium dioxide has demonstrated prevention of the cancer cell cycle to impact cell proliferation 42,43 .Since chitosan-decorated titanium dioxide nanoparticles (CTiO 2 @NPs) are semiconductor metal oxides, they exhibit excellent therapeutic properties when applied to various cancer cells through photodynamic, photothermal, sonodynamic, and near-infrared light therapy.As a result of their outstanding energy efficiency, thermal stability, activity as a photocatalyst, and low cost, they are used in cosmetics, food colorants, paints and inks, biosensors, and energy storage devices developed chitosan-titanium dioxide nanocomposite films with different concentrations [44][45][46] .One percent of TiO 2 -chitosan exhibits good ethylene degradation and antimicrobial properties against Gram-positive bacteria.According to earlier studies 26,[47][48][49] adding the capping agent has the effect of reducing the aggregation of prepared TiO 2 NPs by strongly coordinating the protonated chitosan and Ti 2+ ions on the surface of the developed TiO 2 NPs.
In the present research, a green approach involving A. subulatum extract was used for synthesis for CTiO 2 @ NPs as a bio-reducing agent from the precursor of titanium isopropoxide in addition to the inclusion of drug carriers as chitosan into the developed formulation.The purpose of adding a capping agent is to hinder the surface chemical reactivity of the developed CTiO 2 @NPs through strong coordination between the protonated chitosan and Ti 2+ ions for the reduction of aggregation of prepared CTiO 2 @NPs 47 .Perhaps, we are reporting the use of flavonoids in synthesizing CTiO 2 @NPs for the first time in greener fusion of nanoparticles.The synthesis and application of nanomaterials can be done in a more sustainable way by implementing green nanotechnology.It seeks to reduce environmental impact, improve biocompatibility, and encourage the creation of novel solutions that support sustainable development objectives by fusing eco-friendly concepts with nanotechnology.This streamlines the procedure, which could cut down on resources and production time.When natural extracts are used, the synthesized nanomaterials' biocompatibility is generally improved, which is beneficial for biomedical applications including nano-engineering and medication delivery.Further, we present an inclusive range of characterization of developed CTiO 2 @NPs by utilizing XRD, FTIR, DLS, UV, PL, and SEM studies and biologically assessed their potential exploiting antibacterial, antioxidant, In vitro toxicity, and anticancer effects on human osteosarcoma cell lines.

X-ray diffraction
XRD pattern of bio-synthesized chitosan decorated TiO 2 was exhibited in Fig. 1a.The pattern observed in the lower region of 2θ from 10 to 27° indicates the characteristic peak of chitosan 50,51 200), (111), (210), (211), (220), (002), (310), (301), (112), (311) and (202) planes respectively.The strong and highly crystalline diffraction peak observed from 27 to 80° indicates the formation of tetragonal structured rutile phase TiO 2 with a P42/mnm space group.The obtained peaks agree with ICDD No. 21-1276 as well as with earlier reports 52,53 .The sharpness of the peak and lack of any other peaks indicated that only pure titanium dioxide nanoparticles had formed.These results showed the formation of nanoparticles through intermolecular hydrogen bonding between biomolecules and metal oxides 54 .These findings demonstrated the steric interactions between biomolecules and metal oxides that generate nanoparticles.This finding proves that the chitosan-based TiO 2 nanomaterials surface matrix formed 54 .The average crystallite size of CTiO 2 @NPs was intended as 45 nm using the Debye-Scherer formula: D = 0.9λ/β cos θ, where D is the crystallite size, β represents the full-width half maximum, θ indicates Bragg's angle and λ is the wavelength of X-ray. Figure 1b

FTIR and UV spectroscopy
The various functional groups that are present and used in the formation of nanoparticles were identified from the FTIR spectrum, as revealed in Fig. 2a.The wide -OH and -NH peaks of chitosan with hydrogen bonds present near 3300 cm −1 and 1640 cm −1 , demonstrating the amide group, which gets weaker in CTiO 2 @NPs.The weak peak centered at 2924 and 2852 cm −1 indicating the symmetric and asymmetric vibrations of -CH 3 respectively.The characteristic peak at 1639 cm −1 is accompanied by the C=O stretching vibration of the acetamido groups of chitosan and the carboxylic acid group is confirmed by examining a peak at 1384 cm −18,43,56 .Many peaks observed from 1000 to 1500 cm −1 for chitosan are suppressed for CTiO 2 @NPs.The antisymmetric stretching of C-N and the stretching vibration of C-O-C are centred at 1113 cm −1 insist on hydrogen bonding between the -OH group of chitosan and Ti and the presence of polysaccharides in the chitosan molecule 57,58 .The band centered at 617 and 527 cm −1 is attributed to the bending vibration of Ti-O interaction with the surface of chitosan.The presence of various functional bioactive molecules was confirmed by FTIR data, which took part in converting Ti 2+ into Ti 0 during oxidation (on annealing).Later Ti converted into TiO 2 NPs on green synthesis 56 .According to the findings, chitosan may establish a strong and high intermolecular hydrogen bond with TiO 2 .
Figure 2b displays the UV-absorbance spectra of pure chitosan and chitosan decorated TiO 2 NPs.CTiO 2 spectra exhibit a maximal absorbance at 263 nm due to the formation of nanoparticles, whereas pure chitosan does not exhibit any peak.This result is like the result obtained by 59 .The inset within Fig. 2b presents the calculated bandgap of the prepared NPs, which registers at 4.8 eV.This value exceeds the bandgap of bulk TiO 2 (3.2 eV) and so many earlier reports which may be due to the quantum confinement, a blue shift occurs resulting in the broadening of the bandgap [59][60][61] .The surface plasmon resonance moved to the lower wavelength side due to the  www.nature.com/scientificreports/materials' increasing bandgap.These observations from the TiO 2 NPs surface matrix may lead to oxygen vacancies, which would also enhance their biocidal qualities 56 .

DLS analysis
The Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) technique was utilized to study the dispersal of CTiO 2 @NPs as technique shown in Fig. 3.The TiO 2 NPs hydrodynamic diameter and polydispersity index were calculated as 122 nm and 0.325.The hydrated chitosan that absorbs water molecules during DLS spectra analysis may be responsible for larger particle sizes than XRD measurements.It is attributed to the foreign impurities (chitosan) and the existence of several functional groupings in the extract which lead to distortion on the host TiO 2 surface and are linked to electrostatic interaction or significantly larger intermolecular hydrogen bond formation in the chitosan-TiO 2 matrix 57,62 .

SEM analysis
SEM image of chitosan-decorated TiO 2 is shown in Fig. 4. The results revealed a uniformly smooth surface with polygonal particles devoid of any agglomeration.The image resembles the surface of a custard apple.The presence of chitosan over titanium dioxide nanoparticles is implied by tiny spherical particles that are observable on the surface (yellow circle).The average particle size of CTiO 2 @NPs was observed at 60-80 nm.

Photoluminescence analysis
Using a light source that emits at a wavelength of 325 nm, the photoluminescence spectrum of CTiO 2 @NPs produced through the green method is depicted in Fig. 5.It will reveal any surface flaws and oxygen vacancies that exist in the prepared material.From the PL spectra, five emission peaks have been identified at 382, 437, 482, 517, and 556 nm.At 382 nm, near-band edge (UV emission) was detected due to exciton-exciton recombination  processes; two blue emission peaks were identified at 437 and 482 nm because of oxygen vacancies and selftrapped Ti interstitials 54 .A photo-generated hole and an ionized electron in the valence band of TiO 2 recombine, resulting in a green emission peak at 517 nm 35 .To produce free radicals, which play a part in biological performance, these oxygen vacancies and self-trapped Ti interstitials.In the PL of CTiO 2 @NPs, three types of physical origins have been detected in published samples, including oxygen vacancies, self-trapped excitons, and surface defects.The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn damage the interior cytoplasmic membrane, is largely dependent on these surface defects.In addition, they have the ability to slowly expel proteins and DNA, which kills bacteria and cancer cells 56 .

Antioxidant activity
Upon reduction, the color shifts from purple to yellow, quantifiable a reduction in absorption at 517 nm.In this study, CTiO 2 @NPs displayed a dose-dependent capacity for scavenging radicals.The investigation revealed CTiO 2 @NP's efficacy in scavenging free radicals using DPPH.It involves a vital procedure that retains oxidative stress, membrane breakdown, and cell integrity under control.As depicted in Fig. 6, the radical scavenging effects enhance CTiO 2 's light absorption capability, enabling activity against active free radicals.The antioxidant property of the prepared material is exhibited in Fig. 7.The sample exhibited a DPPH IC 50 value of 95.80 μg/mL, while the standard (Vitamin C) IC 50 was 87.62 μg/mL.The mixture's absorbance was measured spectrophotometrically at 517 nm.

Antibacterial assay
The antibacterial properties of nanomaterials are heavily predisposed by their physicochemical attributes, including size, outline, surface chemistry, and configuration.These properties significantly affect the nanomaterial's interaction with microbial cells and can influence their efficacy in damaging cell membranes.The mechanisms through which nanomaterials exert antibacterial effects are complex and can involve various processes such as membrane disruption, activation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and interference with cellular functions.Typically, the most prevalent antibacterial mechanism has been observed to involve the evolution of reactive oxygen species by nanoparticles.The key mechanism involved in antibacterial activity encompasses the rupture of the bacterial cell membrane, infiltration into the bacterial cell membrane, and initiation of intracellular antibacterial effects, which include interactions with DNA.The pathogenic bacteria selected for this study can cause a wide range of infections, from minor skin infections to serious conditions including pneumonia and bloodstream infections.Some E. coli strains are also utilized in biotechnology and molecular biology for a variety of experimental objectives, including protein synthesis and genetic engineering investigations.Klebsiella pneumoniae is being studied by researchers to better understand its pathogenic processes, antibiotic resistance, and approaches to create novel therapies or preventative tactics against infections caused by these bacteria.Bacillus subtilis, on the other hand, is widely utilized as a model organism to study many aspects of bacterial biology and for industrial applications because to its safety and well-characterized genetics 63 .
In this scenario, the produced nanoparticles was studied against Staphylococcus aureus (19.5 mm), Bacillus substilis (19 mm), Klebsiella pneumoniae (17 mm), and Escherchia coli (18 mm) as shown in Fig. 8a-d.From the results, the prepared CTiO 2 @NPs exhibits the most confined zone of inhibition against the cell wall.The antibacterial activity's extent is contingent on the material's concentration and the type of metal oxide employed, the cell wall of the bacteria is damaged by the prepared nanoparticles.The interaction between the nanoparticles penetrates the cell wall and causes its breakdown.Moreover, the electrons within the conduction band and the

Anticancer effect
For anticancer investigation, different concentrations of CTiO 2 hybrid nanomaterials were tested for MG-63 cell lines, as presented in Fig. 9.When MG-63 cells are treated with CTiO 2 (5 and 7.5 g/mL for 24 h), compared to the control group, the photomicrograph (20x) presented in Fig. 9 illustrates the cellular morphological alterations, including shrinkage, detachment, membrane blebbing, and distorted shape 69 .A consistent fusiform shape can be seen in the untreated control cell (93% cell viability) as presented in Fig. 9. Hybrid nanomaterials in MG-63 cells were significant (p ≤ 0.05).Results obtained for CTiO 2 a hybrid nanomaterial was contrasted with earlier TiO 2 research on the cytotoxic response between different cell types.As highlighted below, the potential mechanisms underlying cancer cell death encompass various aspects.Figure 10 illustrates how CTiO 2 @NPs aid in the demise of eukaryotic cells by playing a role in ROS.This mechanism involves: (a) Generation of active free radicals like singlet O 2 and OH radicals through water splitting within cells.This oxidative stress can damage bacterial cell walls, particularly the peptidoglycan layer and inner cytoplasmic membrane.(b) These effects lead to disturbances in respiratory functions, involving gradual RNA and protein leakage alongside rapid K + ion leakage.Protein adsorption, rate of dissolution, ROS production, and the liberation of Ti 2+ ions all have an impact on a nanomaterial's toxicity.The cytotoxicity percentage of TiO 2 NPs is significantly governed by the elevated levels of ROS generated, intensifying their impact.Consequently, CTiO 2 @NPs exhibit noteworthy anticancer activity, particularly against osteosarcoma cells.When compared to other metal oxides from earlier investigations utilizing different cell lines, CTiO 2 cytotoxic response was found to be superior (Table 2).It might be caused by the presence of chitosan, which interacts with molecules of TiO 2 to form a matrix.However, TiO 2 a very potential nanomaterial will be appropriate for pioneering therapeutic applications in the medical sectors.The physicochemical activity of nanoparticles is enhanced by their small size, which ends up in an elevated surface-volume ratio.Numerous surface flaws are crucial for the biocidal capabilities of nanoparticles since they have a substantial impact on cytotoxicity.Intracellular oxidative stress may be brought on by metal oxide nanoparticles entering the cell by a potential route 56 .

Preparation of natural reducing agent and titanium oxide nanoparticles
Dried A. subulatum powder (5 g) is added to 100 mL of ethanol to prepare the homogenous solution under constant swirling and heating at 80 °C for 20 min.Filtered with Whatman No. 1 filter paper, the mixture was then stored in cold storage, which will serve as a reducing agent to prepare chitosan-decorated titanium dioxide nanoparticles.TiO 2 nanoparticles will be produced by dissolving 0.1 M of titanium (IV) isopropoxide in 80 mL of doubledistilled water to produce an aqueous solution.Subsequently 20 mL of A. subulatum extract was incorporated into the homogenous solution, yielding a combination of milky white and yellow hues.The resulting solution was continuously stirred.

Green synthesis of cross-linked chitosan passivated TiO 2 nanohybrids
To make a chitosan solution, dissolve 1 g of the powder in 100 mL of a 1% acetic acid solution.The homogeneous solution of chitosan is blended with the titanium metal solution while continuously stirring at 80 °C for three hours to create chitosan-passivated TiO 2 NPs.After drying at 100 °C for two hours the ash white mixture was obtained.The resulting powder is then used for further study CTiO 2 @NPs after being annealed in air for 5 h at 300 °C.An illustration of CTiO 2 @NPs is revealed in the Schematic representation Fig. 11.

Ethical approval
The national guidelines were followed in the collection and usage of the natural resources.There is no specific permit required to use this species for experimental purposes.Every technique employed in this research adheres with existing institutional, governmental, and worldwide regulations.Amomum subulatum Roxb. is not categorized as a threatened species or on the Red list, according to our check of the IUCN database.To analyze the formation and crystallite size of the produced material CTiO 2 , an X-ray diffractometer, X'Pert PRO (MODEL: X' PERT PRO-PANalytical) is also used for texture analysis, which involves studying the orientation and distribution of crystalline grains within a given material and recognized for its high precision and accuracy.The diffraction patterns in the bottom region of the 2θ range fitted with CuKα radiation (λ = 0.1540 nm) ranges between 10 and 80° with a step size of 0.0500° was equipped to analyze the structure and materials prepared with different crystallite size.

FTIR and UV spectroscopy
Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy PERKIN ELMER model with spectrum two method was applied for the functional group determination present in the CTiO 2 range from 4000 to 400 cm −1 .Due to its advanced technology and software capabilities, using the PERKIN ELMER instrument to identify organic and inorganic materials precisely gives high-quality, dependable findings.However, UV-VIS spectroscopy analysis was performed using (JASCO V 750) to calculate the optical properties and band gaps of the material in the range of between 200 and 1100 nm.The materials or compounds are examined based on how they react to ultraviolet light, fall in the region between 180 and 380 nm, and visible region fall between 380 and 750 nm wavelength range.

DLS analysis
The UV-Vis Dynamic light scattering (DLS) using Nano Plus model spectrum was acquired to estimate the particle size distribution.The apparatus can measure the particle size of materials suspended in liquids ranging from 0.6 nm to 10 m at concentrations ranging from 0.00001 to 40%.To prepare the representative solution,  www.nature.com/scientificreports/ the powdered CTiO 2 @NPs were thoroughly dissolved in HCl and then ultrasonically distributed to ensure a uniform distribution of NPs.

SEM analysis
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is employed for characterizing the surface morphology, composition, and microstructure of specimens including very high water vapor pressure of up to 3000 Pa.The surface morphology and the material's size were investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) using a JEOL JSM 6390 model.SEM provides high-resolution imaging of the surface of a specimen.

Photoluminescence study
The Perkin Elmer-LS 55 spectrometer was employed to obtain photoluminescence (PL) spectra.It gives useful information on the electrical and optical characteristics of materials.It has monochromators on both the excitation and emission sides, allowing it to do excitation (200-800 nm) and emission (200-900 nm) scans.
Antioxidant activity A 0.1 mL solution of DPPH in methanol (0.135 mM) was added to 1.0 mL of different dosages of CTiO 2 @NPs.The reaction mixture was thoroughly centrifuged before being placed in a dark environment at ambient temperature for 30 min.The absorbance of the mixture was measured spectrophotometrically at 517 nm.Vitamin C was employed as a routine medication 30 .The proportion of neutralizing free radicals was used to compute using the equation below:

Antibacterial assay
Following the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), the antibacterial performance of the synthesized CTiO 2 @NPs was validated against pathogens.The bacteria were cultivated on nutrient agar to acquire the strain.100 mL of a new culture containing 1 × 10 8 CFU mL −1 of bacteria was disseminated onto Mueller Hinton Agar (MHA) plates with a sterile swab.To evaluate the bacterial stain, sterile filter paper of 6 mm diameter was placed on the outer surface of the contaminated agar plate and incubated for 24 h at 37 °C with three distinct concentrations of samples (1, 1.5, and 2 µg mL −1 ).Streptomycin was used as a positive control, with DMSO as a negative control.The biological activity of the prepared CTiO 2 @NPs was tested against two Gram-negative bacteria: Escherichia coli (MTCC 732), Klebsiella pneumoniae (MTCC 741), and two Gram-positive bacteria: Bacillus subtilis (MTCC 441), Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC 3160) 70 .The disc diffusion technique was used and alleviated to study the antibacterial activity of TiO 2 nanoparticles.Using 30 mL of nutrient agar medium the petri plates were prepared.To obtain the bacteria's strain, it was dispersed across nutrient agar.To investigate the bacterial strain, the sterile filter paper containing samples of 50 L (50 µg mL −1 ), 100 L (100 µg mL −1 ), and 150 L (150 µg mL −1 ) was distributed on the surface on the infected agar plate and incubated for 24 h at 37 °C in aerobic conditions.Chloramphenicol was used as a reference.The procedure was performed three times.The inhibitory zone that developed around the disc was measured in millimeters.

In vitro toxicity assay
In the current study, MG-63 cells were kept in growth media made up of Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Media (DMEM), by incorporating an added product of 10% foetal bovine serum (FBS), Penicillin (100 U/mL and streptomycin (100 μg/mL) was added to the medium to prevent bacterial contamination.Osteosarcoma (MG-63) cell lines were collected from the Cell repository of the National Centre for the National Centre Sciences (NCCS), Pune, India.A humid atmosphere was kept around the medium containing the cell lines with 5% CO 2 at 37 °C54 .

Scavenging activity of 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals
The effect of CTiO 2 on DPPH radicals was estimated using the method of 71,72 1.0 mL of various concentrations of CTiO 2 was mixed with 0.1 mL of DPPH-methanol solution (0.135 mM).After proper vortexing, the reaction mixture was allowed to cool at room temperature for 30 min.At a wavelength of 517 nm, the absorbance by the mixture was determined through a spectrophotometer.Vitamin C was used as a standard drug.The percentage of free radical scavenging activity was calculated using the following equation:

Anticancer study
Cell viability assay, MG-63 cells were removed tallied, and counted using a hemacytometer.They were seeded in 96-well plates at a density of 1 × 10 4 cells/mL and incubated for 24 h to consent adhesion.Following the application of various concentrations of TiO 2 (1 to 12.5 g/mL) to each well, MG-63 cells were dealt with as the control.
For 24 h, MG-63 cells were stored in a humid and warm environment containing a blend of 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide.The MTT (5 mg/mL in PBS) dye was applied to each well after the drug-containing cells had been cultured for the first 4 h at 37 °C, and they were then washed with fresh culture media.A small volume of 100 µL of concentrated DMSO was used to dissolve with purple precipitate formation observed and the cell viability was measured by absorbance at 540 nm using a multi-well plate reader.The proportion of stable cells related to the control was used to represent the results.The appropriate dosages were investigated at various time points and the half maximum inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) values were derived.The IC 50 values were calculated based on the TiO 2 dose-response curve, which showed 50% less cytotoxicity than control cells.To achieve accurate findings, each experiment was carried out in duplicate at least three times 54 .

Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using one-way ANOVA with Tukey's multiple comparisons test and a significance level of P 0.05 (95% confidence interval).Graph-Pad Prism Software-VI was used for all statistical analyses, which were performed in triplicate.

Conclusion
The current study provides an in-depth evaluation of the biological performance of bioactive CTiO 2 @NPs by leveraging the feasibility of an extract obtained from A. subulatum Roxb.The XRD patterns exposed that green synthesized CTiO 2 @NPs unveiled a tetragonal rutile structure with a P42/mnm space group.Furthermore, FTIR analysis unveiled the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bond formations between chitosan and TiO 2 nanoparticles play a pivotal part in attracting the stability of the nanoparticles.Based on UV research, CTiO 2 @ NPs has a comparatively large bandgap of 4.8 eV due to the quantum confinement effect.Through SEM analysis, the resultant nanoparticles take on a surface structure of custard apples with clear grain boundaries.Oxygen vacancies and self-trapped Ti interstitials from PL experiments are utilized to gauge its efficiency.CTiO 2 @NPs and amoxicillin samples exhibited antibacterial activities against G+ and G− bacteria with increasing the concentration of NPs increased their antibacterial activity.We also explored the antioxidant capabilities of CTiO NPs by subjecting them to DPPH radicals that outperformed the scavenging activity.The resultant CTiO 2 @NPs exhibited more anticancer activity at 6.5 μg/mL with minimum inhibition concentration of exciting possibilities against bone cancer (MG-63) cells.Overall, the produced NPs show great potential for usage in biomedical sectors with numerous applications (antibacterial and anti-cancer medications) in the future.Future research might concentrate on setting medicines into these nanohybrids and assessing their controlled release patterns.Furthermore, intensive research of green nanotechnology toward theranostics applications in personalized medical technologies is essential to ensure their commercial applications.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. SEM image of CTiO 2 @NPs resembles the surface of custard apple.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.CTiO 2 @NPs used in antioxidant mechanisms of DPPH free radical scavenging activity when exposed to visible light.

Figure 10 .
Figure 10.Schematic representation of the possible mechanism involved in A. subulatum and CTiO 2 @NPs in anticancer activity.

Table 1 .
A landscape of antibacterial performance of CTiO 2 @NPs against different pathogens.

Table 2 .
Cytotoxic response of metal oxide over various cell lines.