Introduction

Zoonotic vector-borne helminths (VBHs) of canids include a cosmopolitan group of heteroxenous parasitic worms belonging to Onchocercidae and Thelaziidae families1,2,3 (Table 1). Adult helminths colonise tissues and body cavities of the vertebrate hosts and produce blood-, skin- or even mucus-dwelling L1 larvae, that are ingested by arthropod vectors4,5 in which they undergo through two developmental stages, until the infective form (L3)6. Canids, especially dogs, are the suitable hosts for several zoonotic onchocercids (i.e., Dirofilaria repens, Dirofilaria immitis, Brugia spp., and Onchocerca lupi) and thelaziid parasites (i.e., Thelazia callipaeda and Thelazia californiensis)7,8,9. Some of VBHs (i.e., Dirofilaria spp. and O. lupi) are of growing concern due to their spread to new regions10,11, zoonotic significance, and associated morbidity in animals and humans4,5. Expanding the knowledge on their biology, ecology and geographical distribution constitutes a key point for planning effective surveillance and control measures. In this context, the study of specific gene targets (e.g., DNA barcode) has represented an advancement in the understanding of the taxonomy, molecular epidemiology, and population genetic of this group of parasites12. However, except for the few studies on the population genetic of T. callipaeda, D. repens and O. lupi13,14,15,16, most studies involving DNA-based barcoding are focused on species identification. For such purposes, the characterization of a single DNA marker often suffices, resulting in the arbitrary use of numerous PCR assays by research and diagnostic laboratories which led to the creation of heterogeneous gene databases of non-universalised target genes and amplicons. Overall, these non-homogeneous data may constitute the first barrier toward the knowledge on population genetic structure, phylogeography and biology of these parasites.

Table 1 Supplementary information of zoonotic VBH of canids4,5,6,16.
Full size table

A notable increase in the number of softwares and algorithms lead to more refined use of molecular information in taxonomic works12. Most common tools and algorithms for the assessment of genetic diversity and species delimitation were based either on a phenetic (e.g., ASAP and ABGD)17,18 or on phylogenetic (e.g., (m)GMYC and (m)PTP) criteria, requiring a well-defined DNA fragment from a multisequence alignment as a starting template19,20,21,22. However, the usefulness of these tools was limited by the heterogenous datasets (i.e., differences in sequence length and localisation), making the characterization based on these DNA gene targets less adapted, also considering that the genetic and evolutionary relationships differ among and between species for a given barcode gene23. Moreover, the use of more than one DNA-barcode marker is advocated for species delineation and taxonomic works18.

In the last 20 years, genetic studies on VBHs have mainly focused on the characterization of two mitochondrial loci (i.e., the 12S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1, cox1), which provided new and refined information on the biology and epidemiology of VBHs. In addition, some epidemiological and molecular studies based on mitochondrial DNA barcoding markers attempted to unearth the genetic diversity of some of these species (e.g., T. callipaeda, O. lupi and D. repens)13,14. However, these studies were either focused on phylogenies for assessing the genetic diversity of a limited number of species13,14 or simple genetic identification, all involving a limited number of representative sequences. Therefore, a comprehensive metabarcoding approach is timely to study the zoonotic VBHs globally. Aware of the limited quality and provenance of the DNA sequences available in the public database (GenBank), we used a combined approach based on genetic distance clustering, maximum likelihood (ML) phylogeny and evolutionary placement algorithm to describe the genetic diversity and create a comprehensive platform for monitoring the diversity and phylogeography of these parasitic nematodes.

Results

Overall, 546 and 280 sequences, representing A and B datasets respectively, were available from GenBank database for the zoonotic VBHs, which covers 47 countries and 18 vertebrate hosts other than dogs and cats and humans (Supplemental Table S1). These datasets lack DNA sequences from the zoonotic Dirofilaria tenuis, Brugia ceylonensis and Brugia patei. The core sequence alignment (CoSA) of 652 and 413 bp was identified through the A and B datasets. Sequence clustering analysis yielded the delineation of 68 and 54 reference sequences from A and B datasets respectively. Of those, 33 reference sequences were mapped from both datasets and were used as dataset C.

Overall, 89 different haplotypes identified for cox1 (n = 35), 12S rRNA (n = 21) or for both genes (n = 33), representing the characterization of 14 species (11 described and three referred to as at the genus level) (Supplemental Table S1). Similarly, the evolutionary phylogenetic placement obtained by the EPA-ng algorithm reproduced the same haplotype delineation of sequences from A, B and C datasets with a weight ratio ranging between 0.85 and 1.

Single and multilocus analyses combining sequence clustering, ML phylogeny and the EPA-ng placement yielded the identification of 94.7% (782/826) and 81.1% (699/826) sequences from all species at the haplotypes level respectively (Figs. 1, 2, 3). However, 6.9% (38/546) and 2.1% (6/280) of sequences from A and B datasets, respectively, were considered as putative haplotypes based on distance clustering and the EPA-ng placement (like weight ratio < 0.85) and the limited query cover on the CoSA. These sequences were of T. callipaeda (two cox1), O. lupi (two 12S rRNA), A. reconditum (one cox1 and three 12S rRNA), D. repens (33 cox1 and one 12S rRNA) and from Dirofilaria sp. subgenus Nochtiella (cox1 accession number: GU474429) (Supplemental Table S1).

Figure 1
figure 1

ML phylogeny showing the distribution of the haplotypes of zoonotic VBHs of canids delineated by the cox1 distance clustering. The tree corresponds to the IQTREE inferred from 68 partial (651 bp) DNA sequences with 32.7% of informative sites using the TIM3 (+F+I+G4) model under 1000 bootstrap replicates and ML method. Branch are color-coded according to the bootstrap value. Species name and GenBank accession number are indicated at the tip of each branch. Bold blue label indicated the reference sequences used in the MLST phylogeny. The tree includes 478 query sequences from the zoonotic VBHs of canids (blue circle) placed at the branch and leaf nodes by the EPA-ng algorithm. The MY_SCHEME_1 sequence alignment viewer of the informative sites from the amino acid alignment and their 50% consensus are shown. The amino acid sequences of the haplotype 1 from each species were used as reference sequence to dot repeats in amino acids throughout the whole haplotypes of the species. Haplotype names are indicated for each node label. Number of domestic, wild, and human infection cases with each haplotype are shown by the bar charts at each node. * and ** indicate delineation failure of the cox1 and 12S rRNA distance clustering respectively. † Indicates inconsistency between the morphological taxonomy and the present molecular characterization.

Full size image
Figure 2
figure 2

ML phylogeny showing the distribution of the haplotypes of zoonotic VBHs of canids delineated by the 12S rRNA distance clustering. The tree corresponds to the IQTREE inferred from 54 partial (413 bp) DNA sequences with 48.9% of informative sites using the TIM2 (+F+R4) model under 1000 bootstrap replicates and ML method. Branch are color-coded according to the bootstrap value. Species name and GenBank accession number are indicated at the tip of each branch. Bold blue label indicated the reference sequences used in the MLST phylogeny. The tree includes 226 query sequences from the zoonotic VBHs of canids (blue circle) placed at the branch and leaf nodes by the EPA-ng algorithm. The MY_SCHEME_1 sequence alignment viewer of the informative sites from the amino acid alignment and their 50% consensus are shown. The amino acid sequences of the haplotype 1 from each species were used as reference sequence to dot repeats in amino acids throughout the whole haplotypes of the species. Haplotype names are indicated for each node label. Number of domestic, wild, and human infection cases with each haplotype are shown by the bar charts at each node. * and ** indicate delineation failure of the cox1 and 12S distance clustering respectively. † Indicates inconsistency between the morphological taxonomy and the present molecular characterization.

Full size image
Figure 3
figure 3

ML phylogeny showing the distribution of the haplotypes of zoonotic VBHs of canids delineated by the cox1 and 12S rRNA distance clustering. The tree corresponds to the IQTREE inferred from 33 concatenated (1064 bp) DNA sequences with 29.13% of informative sites using the (+F+R5) model under 1000 bootstrap replicates and ML method. Branch are color-coded according to the bootstrap value. Species name and GenBank accession number are indicated at the tip of each branch. The tree includes 704 (478 cox1 and 226 12S rRNA) partial query sequences from the zoonotic VBHs of canids (blue circle) placed at the branch and leaf nodes by the EPA-ng algorithm. The MY_SCHEME_1sequence alignment viewer of the concatenated informative sites from the cox1 and 12S amino acid alignment and their 50% consensus are shown. The amino acid sequences of the haplotype 1 from each species were used as reference sequence to dot repeats in amino acids throughout the whole haplotypes of the species. Haplotype names are indicated for each node label. Number of domestic, wild, and human infection cases with each haplotype are shown by the bar charts at each node. * and ** indicate delineation failure of the cox1 and 12S rRNA distance clustering respectively. † Indicates inconsistency between the morphological taxonomy and the present molecular characterization.

Full size image

Delineation failure was observed for three D. repens haplotypes, where the 12S rRNA gene yielded their discrimination, whilst the cox1 sequences were haplotype 1. Conversely, the cox1 clustering revealed a discriminatory delineation of five T. callipaeda haplotypes (e.g., 16, 19, 20, 21 and 23) having a similar 12S rRNA sequences (Supplemental Table S1). For T. callipaeda, synonymous mutations were most frequent in both genes (Figs. 1, 2, 3), whilst for the quested Onchocercidae species, most DNA mutations in both loci were non-silent and induced a change in the protein's amino-acid sequence of all delineated haplotypes (Figs. 1, 2, 3). The analysis delineated seven new haplotypes (H22-28) for T. callipaeda from humans, pets and wild animals from China (Supplemental Table S1). Two newly haplotypes of T. californiensis were herein delineated by the cox1 gene. These sequences (cox1 accession number: MW055239-40) were from male and female worms isolated simultaneously from the same dog24. Sequence comparison revealed the presence of up to six transitions (i.e., three A>G, two T>C and one C>T) and one transversion (i.e., T>A). Of these, two transitions (A>G) induced a change in protein sequence (i.e., Alanine to Valine and Aspartic acid to Aspargin) (Fig. 1). Twelve haplotypes of D. repens were delineated for both genes (H1-3), one by the cox1 (H4) or by the 12S rRNA (H5-12), followed by B. malayi with 11 haplotypes, B. pahangi eight haplotypes, A. reconditum and O. lupi with seven for each and five haplotypes for D. immitis delineated by cox1 (n = 1), 12S rRNA (n = 2) or by both genes (n = 2). Overall, a less genetic diversity was observed for the remaining species/subspecies (Supplemental Table S1).

Regarding the epidemiological importance, haplotype 1 of D. immitis, D. repens, O. lupi and T. callipaeda was the most frequently detected and geographically distributed one (Figs. 4, 5 and Supplemental Fig. S1). Except from T. callipaeda, these haplotypes were the most frequently involved in human cases (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and Supplemental Table S1).

Figure 4
figure 4

Geographical plotting of the zoonotic eye-worms (Thelazia spp. and O. lupi) haplotypes using the QGIS software (version 3.0.0, http://qgis.osgeo.org)25. The choropleth map (color-gradient map) represents the availability of DNA sequences per each country. Haplotypes for each species are plotted using country centroids and the point displacement tool.

Full size image
Figure 5
figure 5

Geographical plotting of the zoonotic onchocercid haplotypes using the QGIS software (version 3.0.0, http://qgis.osgeo.org)25. The choropleth map (color-gradient map) represents the availability of DNA sequences per each country. Haplotypes for each species are plotted using country centroids and the point displacement tool.

Full size image

Discussion

The present study delineated the inter- and intraspecies diversity of selected VBHs infesting canids, based on the following criteria: (i) a core sequence alignment covering the most identified informative regions of barcoded specimens, (ii) distance clustering with predetermined threshold adjusted to each gene, (iii) the ML phylogeny inferred from the CoSA of reference sequences, and (iv) the phylogenetic evolutionary placement of query sequences with high-like weight ratio. Combining all these criteria, 94.7% of DNA sequences from datasets A and B were characterized at the genotype level regardless the sequence size or region, suggesting that this new approach could be useful for studying global genetic diversity from large DNA databases. Despite the exhaustive BLAST search herein performed, DNA loci from D. tenuis, B. ceylonensis and B. patei remains unavailable. These species need several clarifications. For example, a human dirofilariasis infection causing neuritis was confined to D. tenuis in South Florida (USA) without being confirmed by molecular data26. Moreover, a suspected B. ceylonensis involved in a human filariasis in Sri Lanka was previously reported27. It should also be noted that B. ceylonensis and B. patei are not completely resolved morphologically6, which may explain the absence of the confirmation of the human case from Sri Lanka27. In addition, some species such as Thelazia sp. (GenBank accession number: AB852551), and Dirofilaria spp. (GenBank accession numbers: KY085963, GU474429 and MH823371) were herein resolved at the genus level. However, the question arises whether they are new species cannot be ruled out in the absence of morphological data. Given that, further studies combining molecular and morphological characterization are needed to assess the identity/validity of these species. Although only a limited number of DNA loci were examined here, which could be a limitation of the present study, the delineation of haplotypes using the newly proposed approach was consistent with the previous description of T. callipaeda based on partial single mitochondrial loci (cox1)28 and on deep population genetic structure analysis13. In addition to the previously described haplotypes of T. callipaeda (H1-21)13, in this study seven new haplotypes were delineated from China (H22-28), thus expanding the genetic diversity of the parasite in this country. Interestingly, the occurrence of T. callipaeda infections in humans seems to be related to the phylogeography, with up to 74 DNA sequences representing 13 different Asian haplotypes of T. callipaeda reported from humans in Japan and China, while the haplotype 1 is the most diagnosed in domestic and wild animals from different geographical areas, especially from Europe. However, due to the absence of DNA sequences from human European cases of T. callipaeda reported so far, it remains to be ascertained whether the haplotype 1 is also linked to human cases. Nevertheless, considering the inconspicuous genetic differentiation of T. callipaeda from different animal species (i.e., dogs, foxes, cats, and humans), a lack of host specificity has been proposed in previous studies29. Moreover, the hypothesis linking the genetic diversity of T. callipaeda to the vector13 needs further confirmation.

In addition to the readily distinguishable putative species of the genus Thelazia from a Japanese dog (Thelazia sp. D2-1, GenBank accession number: AB852551), two other distinct haplotypes of zoonotic T. californiensis were described in the present study, expanding our knowledge on the species diversity. These two newly haplotypes of T. californiensis were from male and female worms isolated simultaneously from the same dog in New Mexico, USA24. Similarly, two T. callipaeda haplotypes were also detected in a single human patient in China13 likely due to the exposure to multiple haplotypes circulating in the infected drosophilid flies13. However, because of the limited number of T. californiensis sequences available, it is questionable if this diversity is based on the sympatric occurrence of different T. californiensis haplotypes in the USA or on the occurrence of heteroplasmy among Thelazia species, but this hypothesis needs to be proven. Heteroplasmy is a common condition of the coexistence of mutant and wild-type forms of mitochondrial DNA in the same cell of nematode worms30,31.

Five different haplotypes of D. immitis were detected, with the haplotype 1 being the most common worldwide, and haplotype 2 described causing human ocular dirofilariasis in South America32,33. The three other haplotypes have been described by only one DNA sequence each, obtained during routine epidemiological monitoring34,35,36. The presence of genetic diversity within D. immitis was confirmed by previous results based on the complete NADH dehydrogenase 1 (ND1) and 16S rRNA gene sequences of isolates from China, which highlighted two distinct phylotypes37. However, confirmation of similarity between the haplotypes described here and those from Liu et al. study cannot be ruled out because the target DNA sequences used in the two studies are different. This highlights the importance of universalizing the target DNA sequence for taxonomic and epidemiological purposes to strengthen the phylogeographic information. Unfortunately, sequence datasets assessed here lack the sequence from several morphologically valid species of the genus Dirofilaria33. In the same way, only one genotype was delineated for D. ursi and another one for D. striata, probably due to the paucity of DNA data available for these species. Interestingly, D. ursi clustered phylogenetically with the subgenus Dirofilaria, whilst this species was morphologically considered to be a part of the subgenus Nochtiella38. Thereby, a revision of the genus Dirofilaria under the framework of integrative taxonomy combining both morphological and molecular characters is needed.

At least 16 different haplotypes were retrieved in D. repens-like filarioids. The present study confirmed previous results based on the 2.5 kb mitochondrial fragment, containing the protein-coding genes for the NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase chain 1 (nduo1) and chain 4 (ndfl4), the small rRNA gene and the highly variable AT-rich non-coding control region of the D. repens-like filarioid mitogenome14. Furthermore, the genetic diversity of D. repens-like filarioids appear to be linked to either geography or vertebrate host. For example, 12 haplotype of D. repens have been described in European countries, but only one D. repens haplotype (haplotype 9, GenBank accession number: GQ292761) was isolated from a man in India39. The geographical origin of this case was linked to southern India or Sri Lanka (India), because of the travel history of the patient39. However, due to the absence of any other data on D. repens haplotype 1 from this area and the European origin of the patient (Germany), the European origin of this haplotype of D. repens remains the most probable origin, suggesting a geo-related phylogeny of this species. In addition, haplotype 1 of D. repens was most widespread but geographically restricted to European countries, with exception of four cases from Asia. Of these, two were detected from humans after travel to Europe40, one from a jackal in Uzbekistan41, and one from a Vietnamese patient42. These features reinforce the specific phylogeography of D. repens and demonstrate the utility of genetic characterization in tracing the origin of the parasite, especially when the patient’s travel history is unknown43. In addition to D. repens, the diversity of D. repens-like filarioids includes Dirofilaria sp. Thailand genotypes14, a species previously referred to as “Candidatus Dirofilaria hongkongensis” (unavailable name)44; detected in Hong Kong and parts of India, as well as an undescribed species detected in Argentina45. While all these sequences were phylogenetically clustered within the “hongkongensis” clade, the genetic profile of these D. repens-like filarioids was remarkably linked to the vertebrate host, as suggested previously14. The genotype of Dirofilaria sp. Thailand and the undescribed Dirofilaria (Nochtiella) sp. from Argentina have only been detected in cats and dogs, respectively14. On the other hand, despite the analysis of all available DNA sequences, the genetic diversity revealed here was not exhaustive and the D. repens-like filarioids seem to be more diverse. This hypothesis could be supported by the presence of a cox1 sequence of an undescribed D. repens-like filarioid (Dirofilaria sp. MK-2010, GenBank accession number: GU474429) derived from a human-testicular filariasis case in Austria. This DNA sequence was considered here as putative haplotype due to the shortness of the DNA sequence, but phylogenetically clustered as a distinct genotype within the “hongkongensis” clade (data not shown). In addition, a remarkably high prevalence of D. repens-like microfilariae was reported in Giemsa-stained blood smears from cats in Selangor State, (Malaysia)46. These features highlight the need for more comprehensive and accurate genetic data to fully characterise the genetic profile and taxonomic identity of these filaroids as mentioned above.

A remarkable diversity with seven genotypes was recorded among sequences from the neglected zoonotic O. lupi. The number of haplotypes of O. lupi was previously investigated by Rojas et al. using three mitochondrial markers (cox1, 12S rRNA and NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase chain 5 (nad5)) and two phylogenetic methods (e. g., ML phylogeny and haplotype network)47. Rojas et al. reported two well-separated genotypes, one with worms from the Old and New Worlds and one from Portugal and Spain. However, due to the shortness of the 12S rRNA (298 bp) and nad5 (393 bp) they used, only the cox1 delimitation is discussed here. As an example, O. lupi reported as genotype 147 was herein found to encompass four groups of haplotypes: (i) sequences from USA, Hungary, Israel, Greece and Germany, (haplotype 1), (ii) sequences from Portugal (haplotype 2), (iii) sequences from Spain (haplotype 3) and (iv) sequences from Turkey (haplotype 6). In addition, to the different methods used to delineate the phyletic diversity and the difference in the size of the analysed sequences (570 bp versus 652 bp in the present study), the sequence dataset of Rojas et al. lacks sequences from the other haplotypes delineated here, such as sequence from Germany (GenBank accession number: KP347443, haplotype 7), Portugal (GenBank accession number: GU365879, haplotype 4) and Iran (GenBank accession number: JN863696, haplotype 5), which explains the differences in haplotype delimitation.

Similarly, the results of this study have revealed a broad phyletic diversity of A. reconditum, a neglected but potentially zoonotic VBH of canids48. The haplotype 1 was the most frequently detected and widespread, while the other haplotypes were restricted to two geographical areas (haplotype 2 in Brazil and haplotypes 3 to 7 in Tunisia) and were not linked to any scientific publication. Considering the limited information available on these sequences, this genetic diversity could be explained by the possible impact of the different epidemiological contexts in these areas and/or by the diversity of the vector species involved. Nowadays, at least two vector species (i.e., the cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis, and the chewing louse of dogs, Heterodoxus spiniger) are known to transmit A. reconditum from and between dogs during feeding, although other flea and louse species may be involved49. Therefore, further studies should be carried out to explore the biology, population genetic, ecology and epidemiology of this neglected parasite.

Finally, high haplotypic diversity has been described here for Brugian parasites infecting canids. In addition to the 11 and 12 haplotypes of the lymphatic filariasis agents B. malayi and B. pahangi from Asian countries, the presence of a putative new species (Brugia sp. CMT1) from French Guiana was also detected. This species has been described molecularly from primates50 and dogs51. On the other hand, molecular characterization of Brugia spp. is often performed using the 5S gene52, leading to limited molecular information from the quested gene datasets. In addition, Brugia spp. found in the Americas were thought to be more zoonotic than the classic Asian species53. For this reason, previous studies have highlighted the prevalence of other species in wild and domestic canids, such as Brugia sp. from the ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua nasua) and domestic dogs in Brazil54 and Brugia guyanensis from the lymphatic system of the coatimundi (Nasua nasua vittata) in the independent nation of Guyana55. Further integrative studies combining morphological and molecular data are needed for a proper characterization of Brugia spp. circulating in the Americas.

Increasing knowledge on the phylogeography of zoonotic VBHs is crucial for effective surveillance and control measures. Here, we proposed a bioinformatic approach for accurate massive characterisation of gene datasets. However, the success of DNA barcoding depends on how much is available for barcoded specimens and how efficient the information provided by the target DNA sequence is for phyletic diversity, genetic variation, and life history information12. Thereby, the present delineation based only on mitochondrial loci stills limited by the possible occurrence of heteroplasmy within the mitogenome of nematodes, a possibility little investigated in the VBHs included herein.

Methods

Sequence datasets

An exhaustive BLASTn search was performed to retrieve the mitochondrial loci (12S rRNA and cox1) of the zoonotic VBHs of canids (i.e., Brugia spp., Dirofilaria spp., A. reconditum, O. lupi and Thelazia spp.). The multiple sequence alignment viewer tool (recently implemented as function in the BLAST interface) was used to identify the core sequence alignment and to retrieve all related information (accession number, name, voucher code, host source, and geographical origin). Both, cox1 and 12S rRNA sequence datasets, referred here as dataset A and B respectively, were mapped using accession number and voucher code to construct a multi-gene dataset (dataset C).

Species delimitation and phylogenetic analysis

To assess the genetic diversity throughout A, B and C datasets, the all-against-all sequence comparison with genetic distance clustering was performed using the software TaxI2 Tool56. A priori-defined intraspecific genetic distance thresholds of 0.15 and 0.02 for the cox1 and 12S rRNA sequences, respectively, were assessed to identify representative haplotypes as previously described13,47. To validate the haplotypes delineation, reference sequences for each haplotype were selected from A, B and C datasets and aligned using MAFFT57. Sequences from dataset C were concatenated using Sea view58. The designation of a reference sequence for each haplotype was considered when the DNA sequence showed a complete query cover within the core sequence alignment or placed at the branch level within the EPA-ng placement. While putative haplotypes were defined when the sequences lack the complete query cover and placed at the leaf level of the trees by the EPA-ng placement.

From all sequence alignments, the ML phylogeny was performed with 1000 bootstrap replications within IQTREE software59. Using model finder (implemented as function in IQTREE), the TIM2 (+F+R4), TIM3 (+F+I+G4) and the GTR (+F+R5) models were selected to infer the cox1, 12S rRNA and concatenated trees, respectively on Galaxy Server60. The remaining query sequences, from each dataset, were aligned against the reference sequences using Hmmer v3.3.2 software61 and phylogenetically placed on the ML phylograms using the evolutionary placement algorithm of the EPA-ng v0.3.8 software62. For more accurate phylogenetic placement, the heuristic classification was deactivated using the no-heur flag62 and searched using iTOL v5 software63. A correct placement of sequences was considered when the like weight ratio was ≥ 0.85. For each tree, the results of haplotype delineation, sequence placement, informative site for the amino acid alignment, number of human, domestic and wild animal cases, were used to annotate each tree within iTOL v5 software63.

Spatial distribution of haplotypes

The delineated haplotypes were geographically mapped using QGIS version 3.0.025. Global administrative boundaries were retrieved from the GADM64. Specifically, two different maps were built; one on eye worms and one concerned with the remaining species. The Jenks algorithm (Natural Breaks) was used to represent the availability of sequence data per country. The final geographical plotting of each haplotype was performed using country centroids and the point displacement tool.