Transfrontier Conservation Areas and Human-Wildlife Conflict: The Case of the Namibian Component of the Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) TFCA.

Our study deals with human-wildlife conflicts in the Namibian component of the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TFCA). The study reconstructs the historical occurrence of selected mammal species and adopts a socio-ecological approach to assess the impact of human dimensions in the KAZA TFCA. Our results reveal pronounced human–wildlife conflicts with considerable impacts on the livelihoods of communities. Human–wildlife conflict has the potential to become a significant contributor to the failure of the TFCA concept. Conflicts are influenced by a growing human population and large mammal species re-colonising formerly abandoned areas. Mapping the occurrence of selected mammal species over time reveals an interesting picture: although conservation initiatives have led to an increase in the population size of selected species, their occurrence is more restricted than in times of heavily decimated wildlife populations. The increasing restriction of wildlife to protected areas reduces the resilience of the ecosystem. To sustainably manage and conserve wildlife populations, a bigger picture including areas outside of the current borders of KAZA TFCA should be considered. This could support re-connecting ecologically important areas for congested populations to move to and reduces the concentration of wildlife and pressure on the land and people of the region.


African buffalo numbers in the KAZA TFCA between 1975 and 2004
Supplementary Material 7

Lion (Panthera leo)
The pattern of lion distribution has also changed considerably since 1934. Shortridge recalls that lions mainly occurred in the north-west, north-east and eastern regions of SWA. A few lions existed in the Namib mountainous valleys as far south as the Kuiseb river. According to him, below 25ºS (latitude) lions had almost completely disappeared. Some lions followed prey along the Auob river to the south-east close to Upington. In the former Damaraland, they were sometimes found in the coastal regions from the Swakop and lower Kuiseb rivers in the south, around the Spitzkoppe to north of the Ugab river. Lions were widely distributed northwards of the Ugab throughout the Kaokoveld. The highest densities occurred around the Cunene Valley and some northern native villages. Sometimes, although rarely, they were also found close to Windhoek. Lions were found all over Ovamboland and were very common in the Okavango region. The present-day Zambezi region also had considerable lion populations that were evenly distributed and especially plentiful in the Kukweveld in central Zambezi [Shortridge, 1934].
The range in 1975 was similar to the range in 1934. According to Joubert and Mostert, lions were absent from central Namibia and had been eradicated from most farmland, Ovamboland and the Kaokoland plateau. Some lions remained in north-west Damaraland -formerly part of the Etosha National Park (ENP) -and in Kaokoland. Furthermore, they could still be found in the ENP and southern Kavango along the Botswana border. Some prides also persisted further south in Bushman-and Hereroland [Joubert & Mostert, 1975].
Today the range is considerably smaller. The Atlas of Carnivores recorded that lions have disappeared from most of the extreme north, southern and central regions of the country. Regions that have been identified as Lion Conservation Units (LCUs) in Namibia are the Kunene-Etosha population (increasing) and the Khaudom-Caprivi population (stable) [IUCN, 2006].

Blue Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus)
In 1934, based on the information collected by Shortridge, the blue wildebeest was the most widely distributed and most numerous antelope in South West Africa (SWA). High numbers in Ovamboland were constantly reinforced by migrations from the Etosha pan area in the rainy season, when water was available in pans and vleis. Their western limit was approximately the Kaokoveld-Ovambo border and only a few were reported from north-eastern Kaokoveld [35].
Wildebeest populations in the western Okavango and Grootfontein district used to migrate into the Kalahari in Botswana during the rains.  even suggest that most wildebeest in the region were part of a single population. In the dry season, these wildebeest concentrated around the Makarikari Pans, Etosha Pan, Lake Ngami, Chobe river, Okavango swamp, Ovamboland, the present-day Zambezi region, the Cubango and Cunene rivers in Angola as well as the Limpopo river in Botswana and South Africa . Large numbers could also be found in the present-day Zambezi region . West of the Waterberg in the Otjiwarongo district, numbers started decreasing and they were a rare sight in the Otjiwarongo and Okahandja districts. According to Shortridge, wildebeest were more plentiful in the Gobabis and Gibeon district, where they were abundant in the sand dunes east of the Nossob. The southern limit in SWA was the north-east of the Aroab district. The greatest concentrations occurred between the Okavango and Kwando rivers [Shortridge, 1934].
Distribution range collapsed considerably between 1934 and 1975. Based on the findings of Joubert and Mostert, wildebeest were restricted to the eastern part of the ENP, where they were also the most abundant. Very few still existed in the western portion of the park. They had disappeared from Kaokoland. To the east a few individuals could still be found on farms in the Gobabis and Grootfontein districts. They still occurred in northern Kavango and along the Namibia-Botswana border in the Kavango region. Some remained in Bushman-and Hereroland [Joubert & Mostert, 1975].
Today, the blue wildebeest has a smaller range than in 1934. Wildebeest are still present in ENP and in some other protected areas, for example the Khaudom National Park. Low densities can be found in communal areas. Some farms have started to gradually reintroduce the blue wildebeest. They have also been reintroduced to farms outside their natural historical range in the southern and western regions of the country .

Plains Zebra (Equus quagga)
Changes in the occurrence pattern of the plains zebra are similar to those of the blue wildebeest. In 1934, the plains zebra could be found in northern Damaraland, the northern and eastern Kaokoveld, Etosha Pan Area, Ovamboland as well as in the Okavango and present-day Zambezi regions. The herds in the southern Kaokoveld and in the northern and eastern parts of the Outjo District migrated into the Namutoni Game Reserve when water became scarce and concentrated around the Etosha pan. In the extreme north they also migrated westwards to the coast following the Cunene river. They occurred in Ovamboland as long as water was available in vleis and pans and mostly originated from the Namutoni Game Reserve. According to Shortridge, they sometimes wandered from the Etosha pan into the Otjiwarongo district. Some animals existed in northern Bechuananland. They became more common and plentiful between the western Caprivi (today's Zambezi Region) and Lake Ngami. They dispersed along the Omuramba-Omatako until Namukaub. Furthermore, they could be found in the Kungveld along the Khaudum, Shadum and Okavango rivers and flood area. They were numerous in the present-day Zambezi region [Shortridge, 1935].
By 1975, the range was considerably smaller. According to Joubert and Mostert, plains zebra were most densely populated in the eastern part of the ENP. From there they migrated to the north-east during the dry season along the Etosha pan. Herds from the south-eastern side of the pan moved towards the Andoni plain north of Namutoni and herds from the western side of the pan moved into southern Ovamboland. They did not occur in the centre of the ENP. In Kaokoland they were prevalent within the plateau regions. In the northern Kaokoveld they occurred from the escarpment transition zone down to the sub-desert Namib plains. The eastern border seems to be along the border with Botswana. They were absent from western Caprivi (present-day Zambezi region) and the extreme north [Joubert & Mostert, 1975].
Today, the plains zebra has a larger range than in 1934. According to the Atlas of Mammals, a large population still exists in the Etosha National Park. They can further be found on communal land and private farms in the North. Large populations prevail in northern Botswana, dispersing around protected areas [Hack et al., 2002].

African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
The pattern of occurrence of the African buffalo has declined considerably since 1934. In 1934, Shortridge confirmed that buffalo were common on the Angolan side of the Okavango river and along the lower reaches of the Kwando and Okavango rivers. In Namibia, they occurred in eastern and central present-day Zambezi region near the Mashi river, Hukweveld and the rivers around the Linyanti swamp. In the lower reaches of the Okavango they were found on both sides but were more plentiful in the eastern part. They were rare in the lower Okavango swamps but increased in numbers towards the Zambezi-Chobe watershed. Occasionally migrants from Angola could be found in the north-west of the Grootfontein district and in north-eastern Ovamboland [Shortridge, 1934].
By 1975, buffalo no longer occurred in Ovamboland. According to Joubert and Mostert, they were still present in the north-west of the Kavango region and along the Botswana border to the north-east. Very small numbers were reported for then Bushmanland south of the Aha mountains. However, Joubert and Mostert mentioned that they only occurred in very low numbers throughout. A herd of around 500 non-resident buffalos was sighted on the west bank of the Kwando and seemed to migrate from Botswana into SWA [Joubert & Mostert, 1975].
Today, buffalo only occur in the north-east, in particular in the Nkasa Rupara National Park (formely Mamili National Park). According to Winterbach [1996], smaller sub-populations occur in the Bwabwata National Park (formerly West Caprivi Game Reserve) and the eastern part of then Bushmanland. A small group has been introduced to the Waterberg Plateau Park. The range in southern and western Botswana has been severely reduced and is now restricted to the northern areas . They moved into Namibia and Zimbabwe [Winterbach, 1996]. Large numbers are found in the southern and central Okavango Delta. Smaller populations occur in the Chobe National Park and along the border with Zimbabwe in the north-east .