A photoperiodic time measurement served by the biphasic expression of Cryptochrome1ab in the zebrafish eye

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a model species that is used to study the circadian clock. It possesses light-entrainable circadian clocks in both central and peripheral tissues, and its core circadian factor cryptochromes (CRYs) have diverged significantly during evolution. In order to elucidate the functional diversity and involvement of CRYs in photoperiodic mechanisms, we investigated the daily expression profiles of six Cry transcripts in central (brain and eye) and peripheral (fin, skin and muscle) tissues. The zCry genes exhibited gene-specific diurnal conserved variations, and were divided into morning and evening groups. Notably, zCry1ab exhibited biphasic expression profiles in the eye, with peaks in the morning and evening. Comparing ocular zCry1ab expression in different photoperiods (18L:6D, 14L:10D, 10L:14D and 6L:18D) revealed that zCry1ab expression duration changed depending on the photoperiod: it increased at midnight and peaked before lights off. zCry1ab expression in constant light or dark after entrainment under long- or short-day conditions suggested that the evening clock and photic input pathway are involved in photoperiod-dependent zCry1ab expression. Laser microdissection followed by qRT-PCR analysis showed that the evening peak of zCry1ab was likely ascribed to visual photoreceptors. These results suggest the presence of an eye-specific photoperiodic time measurement served by zCry1ab.

The circadian clock consists of three parts: the input pathway(s), the oscillation system and the output pathway(s). Light is the most important signal that activates the input pathway to synchronize the oscillator with daily external cycles. The oscillator generates time signals to control physiological circadian functions through the output pathway. Internal time signals are integrated with the environmental light signal to measure day length, which triggers seasonal photoperiodic responses in many organisms living in temperate zones 1 .
The zebrafish (Danio rerio) circadian clock is one of the most studied among fish species, and is reported to exist in not only the central tissues but also the embryo, larva, peripheral tissues and cultured cells (refs. [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] in Table 1, refs. [12][13][14][15] ). These zebrafish circadian clocks are directly light-entrainable and this feature is also seen in the other fish cells 16 in contrast to the mammalian circadian clocks that are not light-entrainable except for those in the eye.
Among vertebrate core clock components such as period (PER), CLOCK, BMAL and cryptochrome (CRY) proteins, CRYs have both a wide evolutionary background and divergent molecular functions 6 . CRYs are structurally classified into several groups, and together form a large protein family with the photo repair enzymes, photolyases (PHRs). Among CRY/PHR family proteins, animal-type CRYs (CRY1 and CRY2) play a central role in the circadian clock oscillator. Animal-type CRY1 and CRY2 function as transcriptional repressors in the core loop of the circadian clock oscillation system 17,18 , while fruit fly CRY (dCRY) and other non-mammalian CRYs serve as blue light photoreceptor molecules using flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) as a chromophore 19 . In tropical fish, animal-type CRY2 (termed CRY3 in refs. [20][21][22] ) may function for the lunar timer [20][21][22] . In addition, CRY4 was found in the chicken pineal gland 23 and retina 24 and shown to absorb light to change its structure 25 . Biophysical analyses using recombinant CRY4 proteins indicated their chromophore FAD binding and photoreceptive functions 25,26 , and hence CRY4 is strongly suggested to be a photoreceptor and/or a light-driven magnetoreceptor 27 .

Continued
Six Cry gene paralogues have been reported in zebrafish: four animal-type Cry1s (zCry1aa, zCry1ab, zCry1ba and zCry1bb), one animal-type Cry2 (zCry2; termed zCry3 in ref. 2 ) and one Cry4 (zCry4; termed zCry3 in ref. 6 ) 2,6 . These genes have evolved through multiple gene duplication events during teleost evolution 6 , but their functional differences and redundancies are not fully understood. While the animal-type CRY2 (zCRY2) and zCRY4 have only weak or no transcriptional repression ability for the CLOCK:BMAL complex, the four animal-type CRY1s have strong transcriptional repression abilities 14 , so may not only be involved in the circadian clock but also in clock-associated functions, such as the photoperiodic response. Although daily zCry expression patterns have been investigated both in vivo [2][3][4][5][6]8,11 and in vitro 7,9,10 , we comparatively reinvestigated the spatiotemporal expression profiles and light-responsiveness of zCrys to test the above hypothesis. We found that zCry1ab expression in the eye changes depending on the day length. Based on the zCry1ab expression profiles, we suggest a model of zCry1ab expression regulation in the retinal photoreceptors, in which the light and time information may encode the environmental photoperiod into transcriptional regulatory signals.
In all tissues examined, zCry mRNA expression levels exhibited daily changes (p < 0.01, Supplementary Table S1), indicating that their expression was under the control of the circadian clock and/or environmental light. The expression patterns of every gene investigated were similar across the tissues (Figs. 1 and 2), except for a few cases (see below), and the zCry genes were classified into two groups based on their daily expression patterns (Fig. 3, Supplementary Table S32): genes in the 'morning group' were zCry1aa, zCry1ab and zCry2 (Fig. 1), the expression patterns of which were well-fitted to curves with peaks in the first half of the light period (ZT0.5-ZT6.9), while genes in the 'evening group' were zCry1ba, zCry1bb and zCry4 (Fig. 2), which were well-fitted to curves with peaks at the start of the dark period (ZT11.3-ZT13.4), except for zCry4 in the muscle (ZT8.2) (Figs. 2 and 3).
Interestingly, zCry1ab exhibited sustained expression at ZT15 in the eye (the down-pointing triangle in Fig. 1g; p < 0.01 vs. ZT19, Supplementary Table S8), suggesting possible biphasic expression, which was not observed in any other tissue examined (Fig. 1f,h-j).
circadian and photic regulation of zCry expression. We next investigated the expression patterns of zCrys under blue light or dark to further characterize their circadian and photic regulations (Fig. 4). Here we focused on the brain and eye, because (i) expression patterns were not substantially different across the tissues (Figs. 1 and 2) and (ii) the expression levels of every Cry were relatively high in these tissues.
Zebrafish were entrained to the 14L:10D cycle and then exposed to blue light ( Supplementary Fig. S1) for 14 h from ZT0 or kept in the dark. To evaluate the temporal effects of changing the light conditions, we changed sampling points to include 'lights on' and the mid-points of the light and dark periods (ZT0, ZT1, ZT3, ZT7, ZT14, ZT15, ZT19 and ZT0).
In the eye, light effects were observed in all the examined zCry genes ( Fig. 4d-f,j-l; interaction p < 0.05, Supplementary Table S33). The zCry1aa expression level under the blue light condition was higher at ZT3 than that under the dark condition (p < 0.01, Supplementary Table S35). Notably, the eye-specific biphasic expression of zCry1ab (Fig. 1g) was reproduced with peaks in both the morning and evening under the blue light condition (Fig. 4e). The zCry1ab expression level at the evening peak was significantly higher than that in the dark (blue light vs dark at ZT14; p < 0.05, Supplementary Table S37). Similarly, all the evening-group genes showed the light-dependent upregulation in the evening (ZT14, Fig. 4j-l; p < 0.01, Supplementary Tables S39, S41, and S45). Under the dark condition, all the morning-and evening-group zCry genes exhibited significant temporal variations with peaks in the morning and evening, respectively (Supplementary Tables S33, S35, S37, S39, S41, S43, and S45). These results suggested that both the morning and evening zCry gene expressions are controlled by the circadian clock and additionally regulated by the light signal in the eye.
In the brain, expressions of the four zCry1 genes were affected by the light (Fig. 4a,b,g,h; interaction p < 0.05, Supplementary Tables S33, S34, S36, S38, and S40), but those of zCry2 and zCry4 were not (Fig. 4c     www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ we entrained zebrafish to blue light/dark cycles of the different photoperiods and investigated the expression patterns of ocular zCry1ab at 2-h intervals (Fig. 5). Under all of the photoperiodic conditions examined, the evening peaks were more pronounced than the morning (shoulder) peaks. Notably, the expression profiles of zCry1ab changed depending on the photoperiod (interaction p < 0.01, Supplementary Table S58): both the morning and evening peaks advanced with the shortening of the light period.
In order to identify the underlying regulatory mechanisms, we compared zCry1ab profiles (relative mRNA levels) under the four photoperiodic conditions using different reference points (Fig. 6). When the profiles were plotted with 'lights off ' as the reference point (Fig. 6b), the evening peaks were superimposed 1 h before lights off, except under ELD conditions ("E" in panel b), while the morning (shoulder) peaks diverged. Under ELD conditions (Figs. 5a and 6b), the evening peak occurred 3 h before lights off (ZT15), and the zCry1ab level decreased 1 h before lights off (ZT17). The fact that zCry1ab mRNA decreased during the light period refutes the hypothesis of dark-triggered mRNA downregulation around the end of the light period. In contrast to the evening peaks, the morning (shoulder) peaks seemed to be closer together when the profiles were plotted with midnight (broken lines in Fig. 6c) or noon as the reference points. In this plot, troughs and increasing phases coincided at midnight ("M" in Fig. 6c). These comparisons highlight the photoperiod-dependent changes in the duration of zCry1ab expression.
contributions of the light input pathway and circadian clock. zCry1ab mRNA level was maintained in the evening under constant dark condition (black square at ZT14 in Fig. 4e), implying that zCry1ab expression was regulated by not only the light signal but also the circadian clock in the evening. In order to validate this hypothesis, we investigated the evening levels of zCry1ab mRNA at 1-h intervals under blue light or in the dark after entrainment to the LD or SD conditions (Fig. 7). When the fish were kept under constant blue light conditions after entrainment to a LD condition (LD-LL, orange up-pointing triangles in Fig. 7a), the zCry1ab expression level increased from ZT11 and peaked at ZT13, before decreasing to a very low level at ZT16. This decrease in constant light confirmed that the decrease after the evening peak was not triggered by lights off, and instead suggested that downregulation was probably dependent on the circadian regulatory mechanism. In fact, a small peak was observed in the evening (12-14 h after ZT0) when the fish were kept under constant dark conditions after entrainment to a LD condition (LD-DD, black up-pointing triangles in Fig. 7a). The level of the peak at ZT13 in LD-LL was significantly higher than that in LD-DD (2.45-fold, p < 0.01, Light13 vs Dark13 in Supplementary  Table S65), suggesting combinatorial regulation by both the circadian clock and photic upregulation to form the evening peak. We then investigated levels of zCry1ab transcripts after entrainment to short-day conditions (SD-LL and SD-DD, Fig. 7b, Supplementary Tables S68-S71). The evening peak was observed at ZT10-11 in SD-LL (blue down-pointing triangles in Fig. 7b), and a lower peak was observed at ZT11 under SD-DD conditions (black down-pointing triangles in Fig. 7b).
Localization of the cell layer expressing zCry1ab mRnA in the evening by laser microdissection (LMD) and qRT-PCR. The photoperiodic and biphasic expression of zCry1ab in the retina raised questions about its physiological importance and its transcriptional regulation mechanisms. To approach these questions, we next tried to identify the retinal cell layer, in which the retina-specific biphasic expression of zCry1ab occurs, by LMD followed by qRT-PCR (Fig. 8). We collected two retinal regions, photoreceptor layer (PRL) and inner    Fig. S1). Light intensities were set at 5.586 × 10 14 photons s −1 m −2 that corresponds to 240 μW cm −2 . Tissues were collected from three (brain samples at ZT0 and ZT19, and eye samples at ZT7 and ZT19) or four (other samples) zebrafish at ZT0, ZT1, ZT3, ZT7, ZT14, ZT15, ZT19 or ZT0 (ZT24) (see Methods for details). Each mRNA level was estimated as a relative value to the geometric mean of mRNA levels of zβ-actin, zGapdh and zEf1α (arithmetic means of their CT values were used in the 2 −ΔΔCT method because they were stably expressed in the brain and eye). Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA (Supplementary www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ retinal layer (IRL) (Fig. 8a,b); PRL dominantly contains visual photoreceptors and IRL contains inner nuclear layer, inner plexiform layer, and ganglion cell layer. The zCry1ab mRNA level in PRL at ZT13 was significantly higher than those in IRL at ZT13 and PRL at ZT17 (Fig. 8c; p < 0.05, Supplementary Tables S72 and S73). The zCry1ab mRNA levels in PRL well agreed with the profile obtained in the analyses of the eye (Fig. 5b), while those in IRL were rather consistent with zCry1ab mRNA profile in the brain (Fig. 4b).

Discussion
The zCry genes studied were classified into two groups based on their mRNA expression profiles in five zebrafish tissues (Figs. 1 and 2): the morning group (zCry1aa, zCry1ab and zCry2) and the evening group (zCry1ba, zCry1bb and zCry4), which exhibited expression peaks in the morning and evening, respectively (Fig. 3). The daily expression peaks of all six Cry genes seemed to be conserved in most of the tissues examined, except for  www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ ocular zCry1ab and muscle zCry4 (Fig. 3, Table 1), suggesting possible tissue-specific regulation mechanisms of zCry1ab and zCry4 in the eye and muscle, respectively. The further examination of photic and circadian regulations of the zCry genes between the brain and eye suggested that not only zCry1ab and zCry4 but also zCry1ba is likely regulated in a tissue-specific manner (Fig. 4g,j). The diurnal variation and/or light responsiveness of zCry mRNA expression in zebrafish cell lines and living animals have been reported by several groups so far (Table 1). Although some previous reports had different experimental conditions to the present study, such as sampling regime, tissues and light conditions, our results are mainly consistent with those obtained in previous studies. Together, they indicate that each zebrafish organ has light input and oscillation systems.
The divergent, or almost anti-phase, profiles of the morning and evening groups (Figs. 1-3) suggest that group-specific expression control occurred and there was functional divergence between the two groups. In fact, zCRYs exhibit varying repressive activity against CLOCK-BMAL complexes 2,6,14 , which could be explained by combinations of three CLOCKs and BMALs forming varying complexes. In mammals, E-box/E′-box, D-box and RRE are morning-time, day-time and night-time elements, respectively 18 and CREB and AP-1 sites possibly function as light-responsive elements 28,29 . On the other hand, E-box and D-box are involved in light-dependent gene expression as well as circadian regulation in zebrafish [30][31][32] . Thus, zCry genes in the morning and evening groups may be differentially regulated by these elements. This hypothesis led us to searche for putative core clock and www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ light-responsive elements (E-box/E′-box, D-box, RRE, CREB, and AP-1) in zCry genes ( Supplementary Fig. S2, Supplementary Tables S74-S79). There is no clear difference between numbers of the putative elements in the morning-and evening-group genes, but clusters of E-box/E′-box and D-box elements were found in or near Exon 1 of the morning-group genes ( Supplementary Fig. S2, red bars). On the other hand, the E-box/E′-box and D-box clusters were accompanied by RREs in the evening-group genes ( Supplementary Fig. S2, red bars). Combinatorial regulations depending on the context of promoter/enhancer may occur in those clusters, and hence temporal and tissue-dependent changes in their regulatory activities should be further examined by genome-wide analyses such as ChIP-seq.
We found that the previously unreported unique expression properties of zCry1ab may be governed by both photoperiod-and tissue-specific regulation: zCry1ab expression peaks in the morning and evening, and the evening peak probably depends on phase-specific photic induction (Fig. 7). Weak rhythmic changes were observed around the projected time points, which corresponded with the end of the light period in the dark (LD-DD and SD-DD; Fig. 7a,b), indicating that the timing of the evening peak was synchronized with the internal clock, the phase of which was defined by the end of the light period in the previous cycle(s) (Fig. 9). The evening signal might trigger the phase-specific photoinduction of the zCry1ab promoter/enhancer region ( Supplementary  Fig. S2), in which light and circadian signals combinatorially regulate zCry1ab transcription. Such regulation may fine-tune the evening peak to occur just before lights off in a wide range of photoperiods (Figs. 5 and 6). In addition to the evening peak, zCry1ab transcription was probably tuned to start at midnight (Fig. 6c), which resulted in morning zCry1ab expression (between midnight and noon). It is unclear what mechanism underlies how the ocular cells anticipate midnight, so future studies should conduct transcriptome analyses of zebrafish eyes under different photoperiods in order to identify the mechanism involved. www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Another important issue is whether both the morning and evening peaks originated from multiple oscillatory loops present in a single cell or different subsets of ocular cells. The present analysis of zCry1ab mRNA levels in the retinal photoreceptor and the other layers (Fig. 8) implied that the biphasic expression occurs exclusively in the photoreceptor cells. Although it is difficult to show the presence of dual loops in a single photoreceptor cell, analyses of cultured photoreceptor cells or a photoreceptor-derived cell line would resolve the issue.
zCry1ab activity around dusk may be particularly important, because photoperiodic responses are generally triggered by a light stimulus at dusk called the "photo-inducible phase" 1 . In Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), which is a photoperiodic species, the photo-inducible phase occurs around ZT13-ZT14, and downstream photoperiodic responses, such as the induction of Dio2 and thyroid hormones in the hypothalamic area, are well-characterised 1 . In the quail pars tuberalis, which is a key site for its seasonal responses, Cry1 is induced by light in a photoinducible-phase-specific manner 33 . The upstream molecular mechanism that opens the temporal window of the photoinducible phase has not yet been identified in quail or any other animal, so the zebrafish eye is a suitable model for investigating photoperiodic gene expression mechanisms.
When compared with a strongly photoperiodic fish, medaka (Oryzias latipes) 34 , photoperiodic responses had been less characterised in zebrafish. Zebrafish are naturally found in northern and north-eastern India (~26.5°N, ~89.5°E), and their breeding season is reportedly between April and August 35 . The day length change in their natural habitat is approximately 10-14 h that is not so large as those in temperate zones but may be enough to trigger the photoperiodic responses, because some tropical or neotropical animals respond to changes in the day length less than 1 h 36,37 .
Based on the result of LMD followed by qRT-PCR (Fig. 8), we consider that the light signal received in the visual photoreceptors likely controls the photoperiodic expression of zCry1ab. Possibly, it regulates the photoperiod-responsive genes in the photoreceptor cells, thereby triggering the seasonal change in the retinal photoreceptor physiology relevant to vision. In the retina, visual sensitivity, retinomotor movement and melatonin synthesis may change with light and circadian time 38 . In the medaka, the mRNA expression of opsins in the retina changes with the environmental temperature as a seasonal response 39 . To the best of our knowledge, there have been few reports of the eye controlling photoperiodic responses, either locally or systemically, but our results suggest that the eye might play a role in photoperiodic responses, at least in the eye itself. In this regard, a recent paper reported that the neural network and intercellular synchronization in the mouse suprachiasmatic nucleus  www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ (SCN) are dependent upon day length 40 , which suggests that tissue-specific photoperiodic measurement occurs in neural tissues. Because zCry1ab is a potent inhibitor of E-box/E′-box-mediated circadian gene expression, it is possible that it plays a role in photoreceptor-specific physiological phenomena. In fact, mRNA levels of retinal Opn4 decrease when zebrafish are transferred from 14L:10D to 18L:6D 41 . Future studies should analyze the downstream molecules of zCry1ab and the upstream regulatory mechanism of Opn4. The in vitro and in vivo functional characterization of zCry1ab and its promoter/enhancer are also required in order to ascertain how and why two peaks occur in the morning and evening.

ethics statement.
All experiments were conducted in accordance with the guidelines of Waseda University.
All protocols were approved by the Committee for the Management of Biological Experiment at Waseda University, and experimental animal care was conducted with permission from the Committee for Animal Experimentation of the School of Science and Engineering, Waseda University (permission # WD15-060; 2015-A028; #2018-A104; #2019-A039).
Animals. Wild-type zebrafish (EkkWill or commercial fish obtained from a local supplier) were maintained in stock tanks at 26-30 °C under 14L:10D long days and white light/dark cycles with lights on at 9:00 am. Fluorescent lamps (FHF32EX-N-HX-S, three-wavelength type, daylight-white, 32 W; Supplementary Fig. S1, black curve) were used as a light source, and the intensity was 5-20 μW cm −2 at water level. collection of tissues during the white light, long-day cycle. Zebrafish (EkkWill line) were transferred from the stock tanks to another tank and fasted under the same cycles (14L:10D, lights on at 9:00 am) at 26 °C for 2 days before sampling. The light source was fluorescent lamps (FL20SS-EX-N/18-F, three-wavelength type, daylight-white, 18 W; Supplementary Fig. S1, black dotted curve) with an intensity of 210-240 μW cm −2 at water level. The fish were chilled on ice before sampling to avoid possible RNA synthesis or degradation. The brain, eye, pectoral fin, skin and skeletal muscle were taken at ZT1, ZT7, ZT15, ZT19 and ZT1 (n = 4 at each time point). During the light (ZT1 and ZT7) and dark (ZT15 and ZT19) periods, sampling was conducted under a white fluorescent lamp (240 μW cm −2 ; Supplementary Fig. S1, black curve) and a dim red light (>650 nm and <80 μW cm −2 ), respectively. The samples were kept in RNAlater ® (Ambion) for 24 h at 4 °C and stored at −80 °C until RNA extraction.
collection of eyes and brain under blue light conditions. Zebrafish obtained from a local supplier were entrained to a 14L:10D white light/dark cycle (lights on at 9:00 am) in stock tanks over 3 months. Subsequently, they were transferred to another tank the day before sampling. At ZT0 of the sampling day, the fish were exposed to blue light (λ max = 462 nm, λ 1/2 = 20 nm; Supplementary Fig. S1, blue curve) or kept in the dark for 14 h. The light intensities were set at 5.586 × 10 14 photons cm −2 s −1 which was equivalent to 240 μW cm −2 . We took three or four samples at ZT0 (start of the light treatment), ZT1 (1-h light treatment), ZT3 (3-h light treatment), ZT7 (midpoint of the light period in the previous LD cycle), ZT14 (end of the light treatment), ZT15 (1 h after the light treatment), ZT19 (midpoint of the dark period in the previous LD cycle) and ZT24 (start of the light  (Figs. 1-3), Cry1aa/Cry2 and Cry1ba/Cry1bb were considered morning and evening oscillators, respectively. The morning signal induced the expression of zCry1ab at midnight, regardless of light and day length conditions. In addition to resetting the morning and evening clocks, the external light signal induced zCry1ab expression in the evening to form the evening peak, which may have been based on an integrated signal of light, day length and evening information. The morning and evening peaks were independent and additive. Shown on the right are schematic drawings of zCry1ab expression profiles under long-day and short-day cycles (modified from data shown in Figs. 4 and 7). Biological signal integration and regulation are represented using logic gates, with representative images of daily regulation patterns.
www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ compound (Tissue-Tek, Sakura) and 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) without fixation, and frozen using isopentane and liquid nitrogen. Tissues were cut at 20 μm onto membrane slides (PEN-Membrane, 2.0 μm, Leica) using a cryostat (CM1850, Leica). Sections were fixed with 70% ethanol for 30 sec and washed with diethyl pyrocarbonate (DEPC) water for 30 sec. Morphology was exposed with 0.05% toluidine blue (pH 4.1, Wako) for 30 sec and washed with DEPC water for 30 sec for two times and air-dried for 30 minutes. Then the sections were immediately subjected to LMD system (LMD6000, Leica) to collect two regions of the retina; photoreceptor layer (PRL) and inner retinal layer (IRL) including inner nuclear layer, inner plexiform layer and ganglion cell layer. Tissues of each region from three fish were pooled together (45,000 μm 2 -70,000 μm 2 ).
Total RNA was extracted with the RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen) and the On-column DNase digestion (RNase-free DNase set, Qiagen). cDNAs were synthesized with High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The total RNA was divided into four aliquots for triplicate RT reactions and one negative control reaction without RTase to confirm no amplification from possibly contaminating residual gDNA.
The PCR reaction mixture was prepared with cDNA and 2x TaqMan  Statistical analyses. Statistical analyses of the qRT-PCR data were performed using R v. 3.3.2 and 3.5.2 (https://cran.r-project.org). We investigated differences in gene expression using one-way and two-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey-Kramer post-hoc tests. Results were considered statistically significant if p < 0.05. The acrophases of the daily expression patterns were analyzed by CircWave (v.1.4) (http://www.euclock. org/results/item/circ-wave.html).

Data availability
The data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper and its Supplementary Information Files.