Geochemistry and tectonic significance of late Paleoproterozoic A-type granites along the southern margin of the North China Craton

The Longwangzhuang pluton is a typical example of Paleoproterozoic A-type granite intrusions at the southern margin of the North China Craton. This pluton is composed of arfvedsonite granite and minor aegirine–augite granites. Samples from both granite types display similar zircon U-Pb ages with 207U-206Pb ages of 1612 ± 19 Ma [mean square weighted deviation (MSWD) = 0.66] and 1609 ± 24 Ma (MSWD = 0.5), respectively. The granites exhibit similar high silica (SiO2 = 71.1–73.4 wt.%), high alkaline (Na2O + K2O = 8.10–9.26 wt.%, K2O/Na2O > 1), and low Al2O3 (11.8–12.8 wt. %) contents and metaluminous to weakly peraluminous bulk chemistry. The chemical variations of the Longwangzhuang pluton suggest the effects of mineral fractionation. In addition, all samples show typical characteristics of A-type granites, such as high 10000Ga/Al ratios (4.10–7.28), high FeOtot/(FeOtot + MgO) ratios (0.88–0.99), and high Zr (484–1082 ppm), Ce (201–560 ppm), and Y (78–156 ppm) contents. The εNd(t) values and the (206Pb/204Pb)t, (207Pb/204Pb)t, and (208Pb/204Pb)t ratios of the arfvedsonite granite samples vary from −4.6 to –5.3, 15.021 to 17.349, 15.241 to 15.472, and 33.206 to 36.905, respectively, and those for the aegirine–augite granite sample amount at −0.2, 14.421, 15.175, and 33.706. The distinct and variable Nd and Pb isotope values indicate the presence of heterogeneous protoliths. Based on its geochemistry, its low initial Pb isotope ratios, and its enrichment in Nd isotopes, we infer that the Longwangzhuang A-type granite is the partial melting product of basement rocks such as the Taihua Group gneisses accompanied by some involvement of juvenile material from the mantle. Together with published data from other Paleoproterozoic A-type granite plutons exposed at the southern margin of the craton, our findings suggest that these granites had a similar origin. Furthermore, geochemically, they can be divided into two groups: A2-type, which formed earlier (~1.8–1.6 Ga), and A1-type, which formed later (~1.6–1.5 Ga). Combining this information with the variations in whole-rock Nd and zircon Hf isotopic composition at ca. 1.6 Ga, we propose that tectonic transformation from post-orogenic to anorogenic magmatism occurred at the southern margin of the North China Craton at that time.

The North China Craton (NCC) preserves key information on the Archean-to-Proterozoic geological evolution and records numerous important geological events during the Precambrian. The final amalgamation of the eastern and western blocks that occurred along the Trans-North China Orogen at ca. 1.85 Ga manifests the formation of the NCC 1 . After the collision, a major transition took place in the evolution of the NCC, and the craton was affected by intensive anorogenic magmatism documented by the formation of aulacogens, mafic dyke swarms, outpourings of volcanic rocks, anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite (AMCG) suites, and A-type granites [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9] . The Paleo-Mesoproterozoic (2.1-1.2 Ga) period is considered a key period of assembly, growth, and breakup of the Columbia (or Nuna) supercontinent 1,9 . Given the abovementioned magma activities and products, many researchers believe that the NCC was involved in the Columbia supercontinent assembly.

Geological Background
The growth of the NCC began in the early Archean at about 3.8 billion years ago with the formation of the first continental nuclei. The formation and stabilization of various micro-blocks occurred prior to the late Archean (2.5 Ga). The amalgamation of two major blocks (namely the western and eastern blocks) along the Trans-North China Orogen occurred at ca. 1.85 Ga; this period is thought to be a major cratonization period in the history of the NCC 5,12,[25][26][27][28] . This amalgamation was followed by rifting, intrusion of mafic dykes, and the formation of A-type granites related to the breakup of the NCC. The rift-related rocks are concentrated in the so-called Xiong' er and Yanshan aulacogens (Fig. 1a). In its present position, the NCC is bordered by the Central Asian Orogenic belt to the north, the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu Orogenic Belt to the south, and the Pacific convergent plate system to the east 28 .
The southern margin of the NCC consists mainly of Neoarchean to early Paleoproterozoic basement rocks and overlying late Paleoproterozoic to Phanerozoic cover sequences 29,30 . The Neoarchean crust to early Paleoproterozoic basement rocks are composed of two distinct tectonic complexes: the Dengfeng Group in the northeast and the Taihua Group in the south (Fig. 1b). The Neoarchean Dengfeng granite-greenstone terrane comprises plutonic rocks and supracrustal assemblages 30 . The Taihua Group consists of amphibolite-to granulite-facies metamorphic rocks that are exposed in the Lushan, Xiaoqinling and Xiong' ershan areas 31 . This rock unit can be divided into the lower and upper Taihua Group. The lower Taihua Group is composed mainly of high-grade sillimanite-garnet gneiss, graphite-bearing gneiss, quartzite, banded iron formations, and marble, with minor mafic granulite, amphibolite, and granitoid rocks 30 , whereas the upper Taihua Group consists predominantly of tonalitic-trondhjemitic-granodioritic (TTG) gneiss with minor supracrustal rocks. The Taihua Group in the Lushan area presents the most complete successions including supracrustal rocks and gneiss series. The Taihua Group in the Xiaoqinling and Lushan areas has been dated at both Archean (~2.9-2.7 Ga) and early Paleoproterozoic (~2.5-2.2 Ga), whereas the Xiong' ershan area with similar gneisses has been dated at ~2.5-2.0 Ga 32,33 .
The LWZ pluton is located in the Xiong'ershan-Waifangshan region of the southern margin of the NCC (Fig. 1b). In this region, Archean medium-to high-grade metamorphic rocks from the Taihua Group as well as supracrustal volcanic rocks of the Xiong' er Group (1.80-1.75 Ga) are overlain by undeformed Mesoproterozoic to Phanerozoic supracrustal rocks of the Guandaokou and Luanchuan Groups. Volcanic rocks of the Xiong' er Group consist of basaltic andesites, andesites, rhyolitic lavas, and minor pyroclastic rocks, with an overall thickness of ≥7600 m 35 . The Guandaokou and Luanchuan Groups consist of a marine sequence of clastic and carbonate rocks 36 . The LWZ pluton is located ca. 10 km east of Luanchuan Town (Fig. 1b) and covers an outcrop area of ca. 140 km 2 and intrudes gneisses of the upper Taihua Group. Along its eastern side, the pluton is intruded by late Cretaceous Heyu granite (Fig. 1c,d).

Analytical Results
The results and methods used for the zircon U-Pb, geochemical, and Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic analyses are provided as the supplementary information in Tables S1-S4.   Zircons of the arfvedsonite granite sample resemble those of the aegirine-augite granite sample (Fig. 3). However, no older zircons were found in the arfvedsonite granite. Eighteen spot analyses were obtained with Th/U ratios ranging from 0.35 to 1.11. The majority of these grains show lead loss to different extents and give consistent 207 Pb/ 206 Pb ages of 1609 ± 24 Ma (MSWD = 0.5) (Fig. 4b). These ages are consistent with the published zircon 207 Pb/ 206 Pb ages of 1625 ± 16 Ma obtained by sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) 22 and 1602 ± 7 Ma 24 and 1616 ± 20 Ma 17 obtained by LA-ICP-MS. This finding suggests that the two types of granite sampled from the LWZ pluton were formed contemporaneously, and ~1.6 Ga represents the crystallization age of the pluton.  (Fig. 5d). In the primitive mantle-normalized trace elements diagram (Fig. 6a), samples from the LWZ pluton are significantly enriched in large ion lithospheric elements (LILE) and REE (ƩREE + Y of 1152 to 2195 ppm) but depleted in P and Ti; the samples also show slightly negative Nb-Ta anomalies. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the rocks are similar to each other with strong negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* < 0.2) and fractionation between light and heavy REEs (Fig. 6b).

Whole-rock Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions.
The granites from the LWZ pluton have low and variable initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios ranging from 0.5382 to 0.7151. The large scatter of the calculated variable initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios is possibly due to the large error caused by their high Rb/Sr ratios (5.8-27.5). All rocks show limited variation in their radiogenic Nd and Pb isotope compositions when calculated back to 1600 Ma. The arfvedsonite granite samples have almost the same initial Nd isotopic compositions, which mainly vary from 0.510301 to 0.510332; however, the aegirine-augite granite sample has a higher 143 Nd/ 144 Nd ratio of 0.510561. The arfvedsonite granite samples show similar ε Nd (t) values ranging between -4.6 and -5.2; a higher ε Nd (t) value of -0.  In the trace element spider diagram the LWZ samples show pronounced enrichment in LILEs, such as Rb and Th, and moderate enrichment in high field strength elements (HFSE), and depletion in Ba, Sr, Ti, and P (Fig. 6a). As shown in Fig. 6b, the chondrite-normalized REE patterns are smoothly right-inclined with strong negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.12 to 0.16). The slightly negative Nb, Ta, and Ti anomalies are believed to have resulted  www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ from fractionation of Ti-bearing phase, and the negative P anomalies from apatite separation. Low Eu/Eu* values require extensive fractionation of plagioclase, K-feldspar, or both. The major element concentrations of the LWZ pluton are roughly negatively correlated with SiO 2 contents (e.g., Fig. 7a,b). The negative correlation of CaO (0.10-1.36) and FeO tot (1.56-4.02) contents with varying SiO 2 contents indicates fractionation of feldspar and Fe-Ti oxides. In Fig. 7, negative correlations of Rb and Ba with varying Sr concentrations (19-91 ppm) suggest crystallization of K-feldspar and plagioclase.
The LWZ pluton is composed of alkaline minerals (e.g., arfvedsonite and aegirine-augite) and enriched in HFSE, and thus resembling typical A-type granites (Fig. 2). However, perthites, which form by high-temperature and low-pressure crystallization 15,37 , share similar features to A-type granite. The 10000Ga/Al ratios for the LWZ range from 4.10 to 7.28; these ratios are higher than the global average value (3.75) of A-type granites 18 . Based on their high Zr (484-898 ppm), Ce (201-560 ppm), and Y (78-148 ppm) contents and high 10000Ga/Al ratios, the samples fall in the field of A-type granites in geochemical classification diagrams (Fig. 8a-d). As shown in Fig. 9a, the ε Nd (t) values of the LWZ granites are distinct and show slightly negative correlations with increasing SiO 2 . Combining this information with the slight increase between the ratios of (La/Sm) N and La content (Fig. 9b), we suggest that the LWZ pluton experienced some contamination or a magma mingling during formation.
A-type granites have been recognized as a distinct group of granites for nearly 40 years 19 . One challenge is distinguishing A-type granites produced predominantly by extreme fractional crystallization of a mantle derived mafic magma, or those generated by partial melting of crustal sources, or by mixing of the two end members 7,38 . Until now, melting experiments have only partially achieved magma with similar major and trace element features to those of A-type granites (e.g., low Al, Ca, Mg, Sr, Eu contents; high Ga/Al ratios) via a combined process of partial melting of lower crustal lithologies (i.e., tonalite, granodiorite, charnockite, and granulitic residuum) followed by fractional crystallization [39][40][41][42] . However, no convincing A-type liquids were produced experimentally solely by crustal materials; thus, it is reasonable to infer some involvement from mantle-derived melts 19 . Moreover, some researchers have noted that the importance of pressure and temperature conditions in the genesis of A-type granite should be emphasized in addition to the composition of the source rock 40 .
Paleoproterozoic mafic rocks have been recognized at the southern margin of the NCC (zircon U-Pb age: 1819 ± 10 Ma 43 ) and show similar ε Nd (t) values (-5.5 to -0.6 44 ) to those of the LWZ pluton; however, the low initial Pb isotope ratios reported in the present study [14.42-17.35 23 also support a crustal origin. Moreover, considering the low Mg contents www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ (0.05-0.22 wt.%) and low Cr (3.87-5.33 ppm) and Ni (0.27-1.82 ppm) concentrations, the LWZ pluton presents crustal characteristics, which cannot be easily explained by fractional crystallization of early-formed mafic rocks.
The proposed crustal source rocks of A-type granites that have been favored are from the lower crust, including (1) metasedimentary rocks, (2) granulitic residuum from a melt of previously extracted I-type granite magmas, and (3) calc-alkaline granitoids, such as tonalite and granodiorite 18,40,[45][46][47] . The metasedimentary rocks typically have low alkaline but high aluminous contents and exhibit peraluminous character 48,49 . The high alkaline contents and lower aluminous contents with metaluminous to weakly peraluminous character of the LWZ pluton argue against a metasedimentary origin. Additionally, experimental results show that partial melting of the refractory residue of a granulite meta-igneous source that had been previously depleted in a hydrous felsic melt would produce granitic magma depleted in alkalis relative to alumina and in TiO 2 relative to MgO 39,40 . However, the LWZ pluton is characterized by high TiO 2 /MgO ranging from 1 to 12 17 , and thus cannot be explained by a residual granulite origin. More importantly, experimental petrology has established that a residual granulitic  www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ source is unlikely to generate A-type granitic melts because it is too refractory 39 . The high Rb/Sr ratios (5.8-27.5) of the LWZ pluton also differ from the residual source composition left behind from the generation of I-type granite 39 . In contrast, the geochemical features of the LWZ pluton [e.g., high K 2 O/Na 2 O ratios (1.35-1.83), low P 2 O 5 (0.02-0.04 wt.%) contents, depletion in Eu and Sr] are more similar to those of the experimental melt derived through partial melting of lower crust, such as tonalite and granodiorite, at high temperature.
With respect to the occurrence of mafic minerals, such as arfvedsonite, aegirine and augite, the LWZ pluton is similar to traditional A-type granites 47 . The metaluminous to weakly peraluminous character of the LWZ may be related to partial melting of tonalite and granodiorite with a plagioclase-rich residue at high temperature (950°C) at a shallow crustal level 15,16 . Widespread exposure of the basement rocks of the Taihua Group has been suggested as a potential source for the LWZ pluton 17,23 . The zircon ε Hf (t) values of the Taihua Group vary from −5.8 to −7.0 32,50 . The low zircon ε Hf (t) values (−17.4 to −8.8 51 ) of the Xiong' er Group rule them out as the possible magma source of the LWZ pluton. In the Xiong' ershan area, the Taihua Group is composed of gray gneisses with minor amphibolites [52][53][54] . The former have positive zircon ε Hf (t) values ranging from 0.6 to 9.0, and the latter have zircon ε Hf (t) values ranging from −5.0 to 1.2 55 . As shown in Fig. 9, the zircon ε Hf (t) values and the whole-rock ε Nd (t) values of A-type granites at the southern NCC mostly plot in the evolution field of the Taihua Group, indicating that they were most likely derived from partial melting of basement rocks like those of the Taihua Group 12, [14][15][16]34 . The zircon ε Hf (t) values of the LWZ pluton vary between -6.4 and -1.1, and the Hf model ages fall within the range of 2.4-2.6 Ga 17,24 . The whole-rock ε Nd (t) values of the LWZ pluton vary from -5.3 to -0.2, and the Nd model ages of the LWZ mostly range from 2.5 to 2.8 Ga, similar to the formation age of the lower NCC crust 55 . Figure 9 shows that both the zircon Hf and whole-rock Nd isotopes of the NCC are slightly more depleted than the Taihua Group rocks, indicating that some juvenile materials had been involved in the generation of this A-type granite.
In summary, the geochemical characteristics of the LWZ granites imply that the magma was generated by partial melting of old crustal source regions, such as the Taihua Group, with some involvement of juvenile mantle materials. The LWZ pluton displays distinct A-type geochemical features, and its time of emplacement can be constrained to the time period of extension in the southern margin of the NCC.
A-type granites along the southern margin of the NCC. As shown in Fig. 1a Table S5). All these plutons were emplaced between ca. 1.8 Ga and ca. 1.5 Ga 12, [14][15][16]34 . Moreover, several typical A-type granites at the northern NCC are also considered here, such as the Miyun A-type granite and the Shachang rapakivi granite 2,6-8 .
Late Paleo-to early Mesoproterozoic A-type granites at the southern margin of the NCC have variable isotope compositions and geochemical characteristics. As shown in Fig. 10a, zircons from these granites have strongly negative ε Hf (t) values that are significantly lower than those of mantle-derived rocks 9 or of newly formed crust-derived rocks 12 , which normally show positive zircon ε Hf (t) values. Nd isotopes of these granites plot along the evolution trend of the TTG rocks of the Taihua Group. Therefore, most of the Paleo-to Mesoproterozoic A-type granites at the southern margin of the NCC were likely generated by partial melting of Neoarchean crustal material similar to that of the Taihua Group.
Granites from different sources would show distinct Pb isotopic compositions 56 . The Pb isotopic ratios of the Motianzhai, Shicheng, and LWZ plutons (Fig. 11) conform to the features of the basement rocks in the NCC, suggesting that their source rocks were mostly extracted from the U-and Th-enriched, epi-metamorphic basement 57 . The low initial radiogenic Pb isotopic composition of these A-type granites indicates that the magmas for these granites were mainly derived from crustal basement materials (Fig. 11a). Moreover, the correlation between the 208 Pb/ 204 Pb and 206 Pb/ 204 Pb ratios indicates the heterogeneity of the magma sources of these A-type granites at the southern margin of the NCC (Fig. 11b).
The Paleo-to Mesoproterozoic Maping, Zhangjiaping, Guijiayu, Shicheng, Motianzhai, and LWZ plutons form a continuous A-type granite belt along the southern margin of the NCC. Together they document the youngest www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ extensional-related event in this region. The generation of A-type rocks requires high temperatures 58 , which can be realized by underplating of mantle-derived mafic magmas or upwelling of asthenospheric mantle material. The existence of a mantle plume at that time could explain this magmatism as well as the contemporaneous lithospheric instabilities and rifting processes.
Geological setting and implications. A-type granites are enigmatic not only with regard to their petrogenesis but also in terms of their tectonic setting and their overall significance in the evolution of the Earth's lithosphere 59 . Although A-type granites were originally thought to form in rift zones or in stable continental blocks, it is generally accepted that they can both form in post-orogenic and anorogenic settings, such as during lithospheric extension, continental rift formation, and during late-to post-orogenic gravitational collapse following an episode of crustal thickening [18][19][20]60 . Therefore, understanding the generation of the A-type granites in the southern NCC would provide critical insight into the tectonic evolution and the deep geodynamic processes that occurred during the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Era.
A-type granites can be subdivided into A 1 and A 2 groups based on geochemical composition 21 . The A 1 group represents magmas emplaced in continental rifts or during intraplate magmatism, whereas the A 2 group represents magmas derived from continental crust or underplated crust that originated through a cycle of continentcontinent collision magmatism 21 . However, it is not easy to distinguish between the two A-type granites owing to the similarity of their features regarding lithology, mineralogy, and geochemistry 61,62 .
As shown in Fig. 12a, A-type granites at the southern NCC define a trend from the group A 2 to the group A 1 field with decreasing age. A-type granites with formation age >1.74 Ga (Guijiayu, Motianzhai, and Shicheng plutons) fall into group A 2 , whereas the 1.53-Ga Zhangjiaping pluton falls into group A 1 . A similar trend also exists in the Yb/Ta versus Y/Nb diagram (Fig. 12b). In Fig. 12b, the granites show a trend from the island arc basalt (IAB) field to the ocean island basalt (OIB) field with decreasing age. This suggests that that granites forming in different periods were controlled by different tectonic settings. The ca. 1.6 billion years old LWZ and Maping A-type granites belong to group A 1 and group A 2 (Fig. 12a,b) and show an affinity to within-plate granites in the tectonic discrimination plots (Fig. 13).
Based on Zr saturation thermometry 63 , the crystallization temperatures of the LWZ pluton was high, ranging from 972 °C to 996 °C, higher than the average value of 839 °C reported for A-type granites 47 (Fig. 12c). Moreover, all of the Paleoproterozoic A-type granites, particularly those of the LWZ and Maping plutons, present high Zr saturation temperatures.
The older A-type granites of the Motianzhai, Guijiayu, Shicheng, and Luoning plutons (>1.74 Ga) have low ε Hf (t) values of -13.9 to -5.3 12,14,15 . A-type granites younger than ca. 1.6 Ga (e.g., Zhangjiaping) also display relatively low ε Hf (t) values for zircon 17,24 (Fig. 13a). However, A-type granites of ca. 1.6 Ga exhibit noticeably larger variations of zircon ε Hf (t) values, ranging from -6.4 to -1.1 for the LWZ pluton and from -16.7 to -6.9 for the Maping pluton 34 (Fig. 13a). A similar phenomenon can also be observed from Nd whole rock systematics (Fig. 13b): the LWZ pluton displays a stronger depletion in Nd isotopic composition than the other A-type granites. Thus, we propose that the 1.6 billion years old A-type granites record a tectonic transformation event during the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Era.
The geological evolution of the NCC during the early Precambrian remains controversial. One opinion holds that the amalgamation of the NCC occurred at ca. 2.5 Ga 64 , whereas others support a model that the western and eastern blocks finally amalgamated by continent-continent collision at ca. 1.85 Ga 26,27,65,66 . However, there is general agreement that the NCC was subjected to extensional tectonics during the late Paleoproterozoic and early Mesoproterozoic. Anorogenic events, such as rifting, intra-plate magmatism, and mafic dyke swarms, are widely manifested during this period. Plutonic and volcanic activity related to extensional tectonics in the NCC culminated at 1.8-1.6 Ga. However, knowledge about the tectonic processes associated with the crustal extension of the NCC is very limited. Extension and Paleo-Mesoproterozoic magmatism in the NCC is related either to post-collisional processes such as slab delamination or to the involvement of a mantle plume. The western and www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ eastern blocks are believed to have combined at ca. 1.85 Ga, after which the tectonic environment changed from compression to extension 9,67 . Another school of thought argues that the NCC was characterized by orogenic processes at ca. 1.9 Ga and post-orogenic rifting events at ca. 1.7 Ga, and that the rifting was initiated by mantle plume 17,68,69 .
In tectonic discrimination diagrams (Fig. 14), all A-type granites at the southern margin of the NCC (1.8 to 1.5 Ga) fall in the field of within-plate granites, likely indicating the existence of a continuous extension environment. Post-collisional (1.80-1.68 Ga) and anorogenic (1.60-1.53 Ga) magmatic events suggest that the NCC was in a  www.nature.com/scientificreports www.nature.com/scientificreports/ long-term extensional tectonic setting. The Guijiayu and Motianzhai plutons (~1.8 Ga in age) are characterized by high-K calc-alkaline granitoids, which is typical for granites from continental collision orogenic belts, particularly at the end of the collision 70 , implying a post-collisional extension environment rather than an anorogenic regime 12,15,16 . A-type granites from the northern NCC, such as the 1.75-Ga Changsaoying, 1.70-Ga Shachang, 1.7-Ga Wenquan, and 1.68-Ga Miyun plutons, formed in a post-collisional setting and suggest a tectonic model of continental collision between the western and eastern blocks of the NCC at ca. 1.85 Ga 8 . The 1.74-Ga Shicheng granite with group A 2 features is comparable to the A-type granites of the northern NCC, suggesting a post-orogenic setting 12 . These occurrences indicate that granitic magmatism was widespread throughout the NCC and that strong post-orogenic extension was likely the main reason for the generation and emplacement of the ca. 1.8-to 1.68-Ga A-type granites. The LWZ pluton is considered the largest anorogenic intrusion at the southern margin of the NCC 17,22-24 . The LWZ and Maping plutons have high and variable ε Hf (t) values and the highest zircon saturation temperatures amongst the A-type granites, likely indicating a tectonic transformation at ca. 1.6 Ga.
During the Paleo-to Mesoproterozoic Era, the Columbia supercontinent is thought to have been the Earth's largest landmass. The fragmentation of Columbia was reported to have begun at ca. 1.6 Ga in North China, India, and North America, and the rifting continued until approximately 1.4 Ga in most parts of the supercontinent 70,71 . The final breakup of the Columbia supercontinent was marked by the emplacement of 1.35-to 1.21-Ga mafic dyke swarms in major cratonic blocks throughout the world 9 . The geological setting of the southern NCC during the transition period of the Paleoproterozoic to the Mesoproterozoic is consistent with the evolution of the Columbia supercontinent. The formation of A-type granites may be related to the breakup of the Columbia supercontinent at the end of the Paleoproterozoic. Taking into account the high Zr saturation temperatures observed for the LWZ pluton (972-996 °C, this study) and for the Maping pluton 34 (870-953 °C), it is reasonable to propose that a mantle plume provided the heat source for partial melting of Archean basement rocks to produce these A-type granites at ca. 1.6 Ga. On a broader scale, we tentatively suggest that the A-type granitoids exposed in the   Table SA.