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Tutorial: multivariate classification for vibrational spectroscopy in biological samples

Abstract

Vibrational spectroscopy techniques, such as Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, have been successful methods for studying the interaction of light with biological materials and facilitating novel cell biology analysis. Spectrochemical analysis is very attractive in disease screening and diagnosis, microbiological studies and forensic and environmental investigations because of its low cost, minimal sample preparation, non-destructive nature and substantially accurate results. However, there is now an urgent need for multivariate classification protocols allowing one to analyze biologically derived spectrochemical data to obtain accurate and reliable results. Multivariate classification comprises discriminant analysis and class-modeling techniques where multiple spectral variables are analyzed in conjunction to distinguish and assign unknown samples to pre-defined groups. The requirement for such protocols is demonstrated by the fact that applications of deep-learning algorithms of complex datasets are being increasingly recognized as critical for extracting important information and visualizing it in a readily interpretable form. Hereby, we have provided a tutorial for multivariate classification analysis of vibrational spectroscopy data (FTIR, Raman and near-IR) highlighting a series of critical steps, such as preprocessing, data selection, feature extraction, classification and model validation. This is an essential aspect toward the construction of a practical spectrochemical analysis model for biological analysis in real-world applications, where fast, accurate and reliable classification models are fundamental.

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Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4: Outlier detection test by a Hotelling’s T2 versus Q residuals chart.
Fig. 5: Results for PLS-DA models in datasets 1–3.

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Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the IRootLab toolbox (http://trevisanj.github.io/irootlab/), in the Figshare repository (https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.6744206.v1), and in the Eigenvector Research repository (http://www.eigenvector.com/data/Corn/index.html).

Code availability

The MATLAB code and instructions on how to process the data are presented in the Supplementary Method.

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Acknowledgements

C.L.M.M. thanks Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)–Brazil (grant 88881.128982/2016-01) for financial support.

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F.L.M. is the principal investigator who conceived and developed the idea for the article. C.L.M.M. performed the data analysis and wrote the manuscript. K.M.G.L and M.S. contributed with recommendations and provided feedback and changes to the manuscript. C.L.M.M. and F.L.M. brought together the text and finalized the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Camilo L. M. Morais or Francis L. Martin.

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Competing interests

Both F.L.M. and C.L.M.M. are shareholders in Biocel UK Ltd., a company for which M.S. is Director. Since submission of this article, Biocel UK Ltd. has sought to develop data analytic tools as a service for commercial gain; some of these might be based on methodologies demonstrated in this manuscript. F.L.M. is also seeking a research and development position within Biocel UK Ltd.

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Key references using this tutorial

Lilo, T. et al. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 412, 1077–1086 (2020): https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-019-02332-w

Maitra, I. et al. J. Biophotonics 13, e201960132 (2019): https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.201960132

Maitra, I. et al. Analyst 144, 7447–7456 (2019): https://doi.org/10.1039/C9AN01749F

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Supplementary Figures 1–9 and Supplementary Method.

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Morais, C.L.M., Lima, K.M.G., Singh, M. et al. Tutorial: multivariate classification for vibrational spectroscopy in biological samples. Nat Protoc 15, 2143–2162 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41596-020-0322-8

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